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William Harvey's Anatomy Book and Literary Culture

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2012

Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle
Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle
Affiliation:
Independent scholar, residing at 95 Normandy Boulevard, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4L 3K4
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Medical History , Volume 52 , Issue 1 , 01 January 2008 , pp. 73 - 91
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Copyright © The Author(s) 2008. Published by Cambridge University Press

References

1 William Harvey, Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus, facsimile rpt. of Frankfurt, William Fitzer, 1628, Birmingham, AL, Classics of Medicine Library, 1978, title-page.

2 E Weil, ‘William Fitzer, the publisher of William Harvey's De motu cordis, 1628’, The Library, 1943, 24: 142–64, p. 145.

3 Geoffrey Keynes, The life of William Harvey, Oxford, Clarendon, 1966, p. 177.

4 André Du Laurens, Opera omnia anatomica et medica, Frankfurt, William Fitzer, 1627, title-page. See Harvey, op. cit., note 1 above, pp. 19, 21.

5 1 Sam. 17. For the topic, see Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, Rhetoric and reform: Erasmus’ civil dispute with Luther, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1983, pp. 1–4.

6 In addition to the title-pages of Fludd, DuLaurens, and Harvey discussed here, the following books published by William Fitzer were available for my examination: B G Penot, Tractatus de elementis, 1628, bound with Tractatus varii Vrsellis, 1602, without illustration; Herodian, Historia, translated by Angelo Poliziano, 1627, with a small drawing on the cover; and Daniele Pare, Historia Palatina, 1633, with the motto of the Order of the Garter, “honi soit qui mal y pense”, and crowned heraldic devices on the title-page recto, and shields with a crowned lion verso.

7 See Weil, op. cit., note 2 above, p. 151.

8 Reproduced in Ralph H Major, A history of medicine, 2 vols, Springfield, IL, Charles C Thomas, 1964, vol. 1, p. 499.

9 Harvey, op. cit., note 1 above, title-page. For the classical comparison, see Joseph Rykwert, The dancing column: on order in architecture, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1996, pp. 171–81, 209; for contemporary English understanding of the classical orders, see Eileen Harris with Nicholas Savage, British architectural books and writers, 1556–1785, Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 23–31.

10 Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica libri septem, Basel, I Oporini, 1543, title-page. For interpretation, see Andrea Carlino, Books of the body: anatomical ritual and Renaissance learning, trans. John Tedeschi and Anne C Tedeschi, University of Chicago Press, 1999, pp. 8–68.

11 See A D Burnett, The engraved title-page of Bacon's ‘Instauratio magna’: an icon and paradigm of science and its wider implications, Durham, Thomas Harriot Seminar, 1998, p. 2 fig. 1, and pp. 6–11.

12 Oxford English dictionary, second unabridged edition, “Doric”, s.v.

13 Harvey, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 21.

14 ‘The refoundation of Canterbury Cathedral and Grammar School, 1541’, in Arthur F Leach, Educational charters and documents 598 to 1909, Cambridge University Press, 1911, pp. 464, 454, 467, 458, 464.

15 C E Woodruff and H J Cape, Schola Regia Cantuariensis: a history of Canterbury School: commonly called the King's School, London, Mitchell, Hughes, and Clarke, 1908, pp. 54–6.

16 Keynes, op. cit., note 3 above, p. 19.

17 William F Costello, The scholastic curriculum of early seventeenth-century Cambridge, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1958, p. 17.

18 Keynes, op. cit., note 3 above, p. 11. Victor Morgan with Christopher Brooke, A history of the University of Cambridge, 4 vols, Cambridge University Press, 1988–2004, vol. 2, pp. 320–33; Mark H Curtis, Oxford and Cambridge in transition, 1558–1642: an essay on the changing relations between the English universities and English society, Oxford, Clarendon, 1959, pp. 78–80. See also Erasmus, De recta pronuntiatione, ed. Maria Cytowska, in Opera omnia, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1969–, 1–4, p. 30.

19 Curtis, op. cit., note 18 above, pp. 165–87, 193–4, 197; H C Porter, Reformation and reaction in Tudor Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1958, pp. 101–272.

20 Cited by Curtis, op. cit., note 18 above, p. 168. Brooke in Morgan and Brooke, op. cit., note 18 above, p. 31. For Caius, see also pp. 25–31, 55–78.

21 Curtis, op. cit., note 18 above, pp. 213–22; Porter, op. cit., note 19 above, pp. 314–15, 344–75. For other theological disputes there in the 1590s, see Porter, ibid., pp. 277–413; Morgan, in Morgan and Brooke, op. cit., note 18 above, pp. 441–54.

22 Douglas Bush, English literature in the earlier seventeenth century: 1600–1660, 2nd ed. rev., Oxford, Clarendon, 1962, p. 310. See also Ole Peter Grell and Andrew Cunningham (eds), Religio medici: medicine and religion in seventeenth-century England, Aldershot, Scolar Press, 1996; for Harvey, see Harold Cook, ‘Institutional structures and personal belief in the London College of Physicians’, in ibid., pp. 91–114, p. 102.

23 Keynes, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 6, 43, 459.

24 Roger French, William Harvey's natural philosophy, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 4, 70.

25 “Stat Jove principium, Musae, Jovis omnia plena”. William Harvey, Anatomical lectures: ‘Prelectiones anatomie universalis’, ‘De musculis’, ed. Gweneth Whitteridge, Edinburgh, E & S Livingstone for the Royal College of Physicians, London, 1964, p. 2, citing Virgil, Eclogae 3.60, which begins “Ab Jove”. Citation of Jove was fashionable, as in James I's sonnet to ‘First Jove, as greatest God above the rest’. James I, ‘The twelve sonnets of invocations to the gods’, from The essays of a prentise, in the divine art of poesie, Edinburgh, 1584, in Peter C Herman (ed.), Reading monarch's writing: the poetry of Henry VIII, Mary Stuart, Elizabeth I, and James VI, Tempe, Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2002, p. 281.

26 Harvey, Prelectiones anatomie universalis, op. cit., note 25 above, p. 14. Although this edition offers as Harvey's source Augustine, Sermones 243, it seems farfetched that he would have read these sermons. That particular sermon repeats themes of Augustine's much more popular and accessible De civitate Dei at 22.14, which is also closer to Harvey's paraphrase.

27 “Otiositas inimica est animae; et ideo certis temporibus occupari debent fratres in labore manuum, certis iterum horis in lectione divina.” Sancti Benedicti regula monasteriorum, Cuthbert Butler (ed), 3rd ed., 3 vols, Freiburg, Herder, 1935, vol. 1, p. 88.

28 For example, Jon R Stone, The Routledge dictionary of Latin quotations: the illiterati's guide to Latin maxims, mottoes, proverbs, and sayings, New York, Routledge, 2005, p. 190.

29 Marie-Benoît Meeuws, ‘“Ora et labora”: devise bénédictine?’ Collectanea cisterciensia, 1992, 54: 193–219, citing on p. 213: “Hinc vetus clarissimaque illa monachorum tessera: Ora et Labora! Opus Dei atque opus laboris, en duplex Dominici servitii ratio, in Maria ac Martha adumbrata, sive alae duae quae ad altissimam attolunt perfectionem”.

30 tessera, in A Latin dictionary, ed. Charlton T Lewis and Charles Short, s.v.; James Yates, tessera, in A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities, ed. William Smith, London, 1848, pp. 112–13; William Ramsay, castra, ibid., p. 251.

31 See Donald R Dickson, The tessera of Antilia: utopian brotherhoods and secret societies in the early seventeenth century, Leiden, E J Brill, 1998, p. 217.

32 “Tutti si riconoscono nella Regola del fondatore, tutti si identificano facilmente nel celebre motto che riassume in modo così perfetto il programma tracciato dalla Regola a coloro che vengono a cercare Dio nel silenzio del chiostro: ‘Ora et labora’, prega e lavora”. Réginald Grégoire (ed.), XV centenario della nascita di s. Benedetto 480–1980: ‘Ora et labora’ testimonianze benedettine nella Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1980, p. IX.

33 Thomas Hope, Practical observations upon divers titles of the law of Scotland, Edinburgh, A Davidson, 1734, p. 434.

34 William Dugdale, Monasticon anglicanum, 3 vols, London, Richard Hodgkinsonne, 1655, vol. 1, fol. dr.

35 For example, by the Alchemy Museum in Kutna Hora, Czech Republic, which opened in 2002 as the first museum dedicated to alchemy. See: http://www.alchemy.cz/ museum/html. For an introduction to the physician-alchemist Khunrath, see the Department of Special Collections in the Memorial Library of the University of Wisconsin–Madison, which maintains a website: http://www.library.wisc.edu/libraries/SpecialCollections/khunrath/index.html. Its Duveen Collection has a rare first edition posted online, from which these citations are taken, epilogue (unnumbered page), marginalia on pp. 2, 24. See also Peter Forshaw, ‘“Ora et labora”: alchemy, magic and cabala in Heinrich Khunrath's Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae (1609)’, PhD thesis, University of London, 2004, although this was unavailable to me. Cf. the saying in an engraving in the Mutus liber: ‘Ora, Lege, Lege, Lege, Relege labora, et Invenies’. Adam McLean, A commentary on the ‘Mutus liber’, Grand Rapids, MI, Phanes, 1991, pl. 14, and pp. 42, 75. There is an apparent association between alchemy and the Benedictine foundation of Ramsey Abbey, which is discussed below. Manuscripts in the Ashmolean catalogue suggest that its monks engaged in alchemy. MSS. 1415–17 are a translation of a book on the transmution of metals, of which Elias Ashmole notes that “Dr. [John] Dee conceiveth this was written by the Prior of Ramsey”. John Wise and W Mackreth Noble, Ramsey Abbey: its rise and fall, taken from the ‘Ramsey history or chronicle’ and other reliable sources; also, an account of the manor & parish since the ‘Dissolution’, facsimile rpt. of 1881 ed., Fenstanton, Huntingdon, Grasshopper, 1981, p. 71.

36 See Weil, op. cit., note 2, pp. 154, 143–5.

37 Robert Fludd, Clavis philosophiae et alchymiae Flvddanae, sive, Roberti Flvddi … ad epistolam Petri Gassendi … exercitationem responsem …, Frankfurt, William Fitzer, 1633. Accounts of Fludd in the history of medicine need updating from William H Huffman's research in Robert Fludd and the end of the Renaissance (London, Routledge, 1988). He was not, for example, a Rosicrucian, and it is improbable that such a society ever existed off the page.

38 I would like to thank Kathleen Gibson, Co-Director of Caven Library, Knox College, University of Toronto, who married into clan Ramsay, for informing me of its motto “Ora et labora”, which prompted further research reported here.

39 Henry Laing, Descriptive catalogue of impressions from ancient Scottish seals, royal, baronial, ecclesiastical, and municipal, embracing a period from A.D. 1094 to the Commonwealth, Edinburgh, The Bannatyne Club, 1850, p. 38.

40 John Horne Stevenson and Marguerite Wood, Scottish heraldic seals: royal, official, burghal, personal, 3 vols, Glasgow, Robert Maclehose at the University Press, 1940, vol. 3, p. 555.

41 Thomas Innes of Learney, Scots heraldry: a practical handbook on the historical principles and modern application of the art and science, 2nd ed. rev., Edinburgh, Oliver and Boyd, 1956, p. 48.

42 ‘Dalhousie, chief of Ramsay’, in Burke's peerage, baronetage, and knightage, clan chiefs, Scottish feudal barons, ed. Charles Mosley, 107th ed., 3 vols, Wilmington, DE, Burke's Peerage and Gentry, 2003, vol. 2, pp. 1018–19, and the discussion on Scottish mottoes below. I have been unable to discover a record of the achievement of George, first Lord Ramsay. For the diffusion of the motto among the Ramsays, see Royal book of crests of Great Britain and Ireland, Dominion of Canada, India, and Australia derived from the best authorities and family records, 2 vols, Edinburgh, 1883, vol. 2, pp. 332, 115; for its adoption by others, see pp. 7, 206, 310, 363, 410. The unicorn head on a crest dates on an armorial seal to 1410 and Sir Alexander of Dalhousie, knight. Stevenson and Wood, op. cit., note 40 above, vol. 3, p. 553.

43 David Macgibbon and Thomas Ross, The castellated and domestic architecture of Scotland, from the twelfth to the eighteenth century, 5 vols, Edinburgh, David Douglas, 1887, vol. 3, pp. 144–8, see p. 145, fig. 89; Maurice Lindsay, The castles of Scotland, London, Constable, 1986, pp. 181–2. In 1648 the clan castle would be occupied by Oliver Cromwell. The eagle displayed appears for clan Ramsay on seals since the late thirteenth century and in manuscripts on shields since the fifteenth. Laing, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 114; Stevenson and Wood, op. cit., note 40 above, vol. 3, p. 559; R R Stodart, Scottish arms, being a collection of armorial bearings A.D. 1370–1678; reproduced in facsimile from contemporary manuscripts with heraldic and genealogical notes, 2 vols, Edinburgh, W Peterson, 1881, vol. 1, plate 7; vol. 2, pp. 51, 107, 178–9.

44 William Anderson, The Scottish nation: or the surnames, families, literature, honours, and biographical history of the people of Scotland, 3 vols, Edinburgh, A Fullarton, 1869, vol. 3, p. 322; vol. 2, p. 394.

45 See William Munk, The roll of the Royal College of Physicians of London: comprising biographical sketches, 2nd ed. rev., 3 vols, London, 1878, vol. 1, pp. 74, 204, 269; Margaret Pelling, with Frances White, Medical conflicts in early modern London: patronage, physicians, and irregular practitioners, 1550–1640, Oxford, Clarendon, 2003, p. 320 and n158, pp. 278, 43n54.

46 Charles J Burnett and Mark D Dennis, Scotland's heraldic heritage: the lion rejoicing, Edinburgh, The Stationery Office, 1997, p. 13, with illustration.

47 Stephen Friar (ed.), A new dictionary of heraldry, Sherborne, Alphabooks, 1987, p. 248.

48 Charles Boutell, Boutell's heraldry, rev. J P Brooke-Little, London, Frederick Warne, 1983, pp. 174–5; Arthur C Fox-Davies, A complete guide to heraldry, rev. J P Brooke-Little, London, Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1969, pp. 341.

49 Burnett and Dennis, op. cit., note 46 above, p. 32.

50 Friar (ed.), op. cit., note 47 above, p. 248.

51 See Keynes, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 329–30.

52 Burnett and Dennis, op. cit., note 46 above, pp. 58–59.

53 Ibid., pp. 17–18, citing Alexander Nisbet, System of heraldry (1722), preface.

54 Anderson, op. cit., note 44 above, vol. 3, p. 321. Simundus de Ramseia is recorded as witnessing in 1140 a charter to the monks of Holyrood, a house of canons regular of Augustine that became in 1633 the site of Charles I's coronation, which Harvey probably attended. For Harvey's trip to Scotland, see Keynes, op. cit., note 3 above, pp. 197–8. Note also Keynes's marginal comment that the Great North Road from London to Edinburgh passed through Huntingdon, p. 197, which was the shire of Ramsey Abbey. For Ramsey, see Anne Reiber DeWindt, ‘The town of Ramsey: the question of eonomic development, 1290–1523’, in Edwin Brezette DeWindt (ed.), The salt of common life: individuality and choice in the medieval town, countryside, and church, Kalamazoo, Medieval Institute Publications of Western Michigan University, 1995, pp. 53–116. See also Ian Blanchard, ‘Lothian and beyond: the economy of the “English Empire” of David I’, in Richard Britnell and John Hatcher (eds), Progress and problems in medieval England, Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 23–45.

55 J Ambrose Raftis, The estates of Ramsey Abbey: a study in economic growth and organization, Toronto, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1957, pp. 1–2.

56 Histories are W Dunn Macray, Chronicon Abbatiae Rameseiensis, Rolls Series, 83, London, 1886; rpt. New York, Krauss, 1966, pp. 7–45; Sister Elspeth, ‘Abbey of Ramsey’, in The Victoria history of the counties of England: Huntingdonshire, 3 vols, rpt. Folkstone, Dawsons of Pall Mall for the University of London Institute of Historical Research, 1974, vol. 1, pp. 377–82.

57 Raftis, op. cit., note 55 above. See also Edwin Brezette DeWindt, The ‘Liber gersumarum’ of Ramsey Abbey: a calendar and index of B.L. Harley MS 445, Toronto, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1976, with citation on p. 365.

58 Warren Ortman Ault (ed.), Court rolls of the Abbey of Ramsey and of the Honor of Clare, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1928, pp. ix, lv.

59 F Donald Logan, ‘Ramsey Abbey: the last days and after’, in DeWindt (ed.), op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 513–45, on pp. 513–17, 524–7.

60 Cartularium Monasterii de Rameseia, ed. William H Hart and Ponsonby A Lyons, Rolls Series 79, 3 vols, London, 1884; rpt. New York, Kraus, 1965, vol. 1, p. vii.

61 John Venn, Caius College, London, F E Robinson, 1901, pp. 59, 61, 63.

62 See Vivian Nutton, John Caius and the manuscripts of Galen, Cambridge, Cambridge Philological Society, 1987. Harvey's relation to Renaissance humanism is documented and analysed at length in manuscripts in process.

63 “… ocularibus demonstrationibus”. Harvey, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 5.

64 Macray, op. cit., note 56 above, p. 330.

65 See David Knowles, Religious orders in England, 3 vols, Cambridge University Press, 1948–59, vol. 2, p. 332.

66 David Knowles, The monastic order in England: a history of its development from the times of St. Dunstan to the Fourth Lateran Council, 940–1216, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1963, pp. 516–18.

67 John G Dunbar, Scottish royal palaces: the architecture of the royal residences during the late medieval and early Renaissance periods, East Linton, East Lothian, Tuckwell, 1999, pp. 87, 88–9.

68 David Knowles, foreward to Ian B Cowan and David E Easson, Medieval religious houses, Scotland: with an appendix on the houses in the Isle of Man, 2nd ed., London, Longman, 1976, pp. xi–xii. Cowan and Easson, ibid., pp. 5–6; see also pp. 55–62. See also James Moir Webster, Dunfermline Abbey, n.p., Carnegie Dumfermline Trust, 1948.

69 George N Clark, A M Cook, and Asa Briggs, A history of the Royal College of Physicians of London, 4 vols, Oxford, Clarendon for the Royal College of Physicians, 1964–72, vol. 1, pp. 191–2, 246–7.

70 Without reference to Harvey, see David Lunn, The English Benedictines, 1540–1688: from reformation to revolution, London, Burns and Oates, 1980, pp. 21–49, 90–120, 123.

71 See Joan Greatrex, ‘The cathedral monasteries in the later Middle Ages’, in Daniel Rees (ed.), Monks of England: the Benedictines in England from Augustine to the present day, London, SPCK, 1997, pp. 118–34, on p. 120.

72 Montague R James, The ancient libraries of Canterbury and Dover, Cambridge University Press, 1903, pp. 55–61, 332–49; Alfred B Emden, Donors of books to S. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury, Oxford, Oxford Bibliographical Society, Bodleian Library,1968. See also Sandy Heslop and John Mitchell, ‘The arts and learning’, in Richard Gem (ed.), English heritage book of St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury, London, B T Batsford and English Heritage, 1997, pp. 67–89, on pp. 85–89; Greatrex, op. cit., note 71 above, pp. 128–30, 133.

73 Greatrex, op. cit., note 71 above, pp. 128–30, 133, 134.

74 D Sherlock and H Woods, with L Blackmore, et al., in J Geddes (ed.), St. Augustine's Abbey: report on excavations, 1960–78, Maidstone, Kent Archaeological Society for the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, 1988, pp. 10–13; Margaret Sparks, ‘The Abbey site, 1538–1997’, in Gem (ed.), op. cit., note 72 above, pp. 143–61, on pp. 143–4.

75 See Brooke in Morgan and Brooke, op. cit., note 18 above, pp. 25–6.

76 See Francisco L Maschietto, Benedettini profesori all'Università di Padova (secc. XV–XVIII): profili biografici, Padua, Abbazia di Santa Giustina, 1989.

77 Barry Collett, Italian Benedictine scholars and the Reformation: the Congregation of Santa Giustina of Padua, Oxford, Clarendon, 1985, pp. 1–6, 9.

78 Thomas Coryat, Coryat's crudities, 2 vols, Glasgow, James MacLehose and Sons for the University, 1905, vol. 1, pp. 287, 289–91. Coryat was employed by James I's elder son, Henry, Prince of Wales, who helped him obtain the licence to print this book. It was formally presented to the members of the royal family, including the Duke of York, who became Charles I, the dedicatee of Harvey's book. See Michael Strachan, The life and adventures of Thomas Coryate, Oxford University Press, 1962, pp. 11, 13, 130–2, 134. For the author, see also Anthony Parr, ‘Thomas Coryat and the discovery of Europe’, Huntington Library Quarterly, 1992, 55: 578–602; Katharine A Craik, ‘Reading Coryats Crudities (1611)’, Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, 2004, 44: 77–96.

79 Coryat, op. cit., note 78 above, vol. 1, pp. 288, 289, 422. See also Ruperto Pepi, ‘Cenni storici sulla basilica e sulla badia di santa Giustina’, in Paolo Lino Zovatto, et al. (eds), La Basilica di s. Giustina: arte e storia, Castelfranco Veneto, Grifone, 1970, pp. 347–98; Barbara Kilian, S. Giustina in Padua: Benediktinische Sakralarchitektur zwischen Tradition und Anspruch, Frankfurt, Peter Lang, 1997.

80 Nicola Ivanoff, ‘Sculture e pitture dal quattrocento al settecento’, in Zovatto, et al. (eds), op. cit., note 79 above, pp. 270–6, p. 375 pl. 24, p. 407 pl. 85; Terisio Pignatti and Filippo Pedrocco, Veronese, 2 vols, Milan, Electa, 1995, vol. 2, p. 328. See also Andrea Mantegna's polyptych in its chapel of St Luke, which depicts Giustina's heart bleeding in streams on her dress. Alberta de Nicolò Salmazo, Andrea Mantegna, Milan, Rizzoli, 2004, between pp. 40–1 pl. XV, and also pl. 66.

81 Harvey's conformity to local Catholic culture is attested by the notorial Paduan record for his doctoral degrees that he swore the stipulated oath of papal supremacy. However, it was deliberately omitted at his request from the copy at the Royal College of Physicians, London. Jonathan Woolfson, Padua and the Tudors: English students in Italy, 1485–1603, University of Toronto Press, 1998, pp. 22–23.

82 Alberta de Nicolò Salmazo, et al. (eds), I benedettini a Padova e nel territorio padovano atraverso I secoli, catologo di mostra Padua, 1980, Padua, Abbazia di s. Giustina, 1980, pp. 307–10; Alberta de Nicolò Salmazo, ‘Le storie di san Luca e di san Mattia di Giovanni Storlato: dalla leggenda alla realtà’, in Giovanni B Francesco Trolese (ed.), Riforma di chiesa, cultura e spiritualità nel quattrocento veneto, Cesena, Badia di s. Maria del Monte, 1984, pp. 443–65. Storlato's fresco of St Luke as a physician–evangelist is not extant in that chapel. I wish to thank Nadia Saracoglu for on-site confirmation of this in the summer of 2005. However, Mantenga also painted above the chapel's altar a polyptych of Luke at his desk writing the gospel. See Giulio Bresciari Alvarez, ‘La basilica di s. Giustina nelle sue fasi storico-costruttive’, in Zovatto, et al. (eds), op. cit., note 79 above, pp. 97–110; Ivanoff, op. cit.. note 80 above. pp. 169–81, and 182 pl. 14; Salmazo, op. cit., note 80 above, pp. 63–66, 68–69, and between pp. 89–9 pl. I.

83 For the seal, see Clark, Cook and Briggs, op. cit., note 69 above, vol. 1, p. 94.

84 Robert Fludd, Mosaicall philosophy, London, Humphrey Moseley, 1659, p. i of preface, cited by Huffman, op. cit., note 37 above, p. 102.

85 Coryat, op. cit., note 78 above, vol. 1, pp. 355, 288, 290–2. For contemporary travelogues, see Fynes Moryson, An itinerary, 3 vols, Glasgow, James Maclehose and Sons, 1907, vol. 1, pp. 152–3; Francis Schott, Itinerarium Italiae rerumque romanarum, Antwerp, Plantiniana, 1600, p. 32.

86 See Knowles, op. cit., note 66 above, p. 528.

87 See Collett, op. cit., note 77 above, pp. 8–261, 27, 71.

88 “Cvm multis viuorum dissectionibus (vti ad manum dabantur) animum ad obseruandum primum appuli; quo cordis motus vsum, et vtilitates in animalibus per autopsiam, et non per libros aliorumque scripta inuenirem”. Harvey, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 20.

89 “… rei litterariae vtile”, ibid., p. 9. “… reipub. literariae ex opera mea vtile”, p. 21.

90 “Harveum nostrum Reipublicae literariae commodo, Vestrae omnium dignitati, et honori suo litasse”. George Ent, Prefatory letter to William Harvey, Exercitationes de generatione animalium, London, Octavian Pulleyn, 1651, p. a4.

91 See Leach, op. cit., note 14 above, p. 452.

92 Marc Fumaroli, ‘The republic of letters’, Diogenes, 1988, 143: 129–52, pp. 134–8; idem, ‘La république des lettres redécouverte’, in Marta Fattori (ed.), Il vocabolario della République des lettres: terminologia filosofica e storia della filosofia: problemi di metodo, Florence, Leo S Olschki, 1997, pp. 41–56, on pp. 44–5. See also Françoise Waquet, ‘Qu'est-ce que la République des Lettres? Essai de sémantique historique’, Bibliothèque de l’École de Chartes, 1989, 147: 473–502; Paul Dibon, ‘Communication in the Respublica literaria of the 17th century’, in idem, Regards sur la Hollande du siècle d'or, Naples, Vivarium, 1990, pp. 153–70. The association of the respublica literaria with a Florentine academy of Medici patronage needs updating, for it did not exist as such. See James Hankins, ‘The myth of the Platonic academy of Florence’, Renaiss. Q., 1991, 44: 429–75.

93 See Thomas W Baldwin, William Shakespere's small Latine and lesse Greeke, 2 vols, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1944, vol. 2, pp. 197–238.

94 Clark, Cook and Briggs, op. cit., note 69 above, vol. 1, p. 186.

95 See recently French, op. cit., note 24 above, pp. 114–285.

96 “…oportet in restituenda literaria re animum Herculanum praestare, hoc est nullo tuo incommodo a communi vtilitate curanda vel deterrari vel defatigari”. Erasmus, Adagia, ed. M L van Poll-van de Lisdonk, et al., in Opera omnia, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1969–, II–5, p. 39; R A B Mynors (trans.), The collected works of Erasmus, University of Toronto Press, 1971– , vol. 34, p. 81. See also, in general, Fritz Schalk, ‘Erasmus und die “Res publica literaria”’, in Cornelis Reedijk (ed.), Actes du congrès Erasme, Rotterdam 27–29 octobre 1969, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1971, pp. 14–28; Fumaroli, ‘République des lettres rédecouverte’, op. cit., note 92 above, pp. 49–51.

97 “Creamus te Musis fauentibus studiorum dictatorem; cura ne quid respublica litteraria capiat detrimenti”. “Quia Galenus me docuit, hominem a caeteris animantibus, quae vocamus aloga, discerni non ratione sed oratione”. “Medicinae tantum addetur, quantum tuendae valetudine sat erit”. Erasmus, De recta pronuntiatione, op. cit., note 18 above, pp. 18, 14, 31; Maurice Pope (trans.), Collected works of Erasmus, University of Toronto Press, 1974–, vol. 26, pp. 372, 369, 387.

98 See Quintilian, Institutio oratoria 2.16.12.

99 Prefaces to the first editions of the Greek and Roman classics and of the Sacred Scriptures, Beriah Botfield (ed.), London, H G Bohn, 1861, p. 352.

100 Fumaroli, ‘Republic of Letters’, pp. 147–9; Fumaroli, ‘République des lettres redécouverte’, pp. 46–8, 52, both cited in note 92 above. See also Fumaroli, ‘Venise et la République des Lettres au XVIe siècle’, in Vittore Branca and Carlo Ossola (eds), Crisi e rinnovamenti nell'autunno del Rinascimento a Venezia, Florence, Leo S Olschki, 1991, pp. 343–57.

101 “…in authorum et scriptorum Anatomicorum nominibus, operibus et sententiis recensendis, exagitandis memoriam meam, et lucubrationes, multamque lectionem et magnum volumen ostentare nolebam. Tum quod non ex libris, sed ex dissectionibus, non ex placitis Philosophorum, sed fabrica naturae discere et docere Anatomen profitear”. Harvey, op. cit., note 1 above, p. 8.

102 “… imo universae rei litterariae commune bonum”. Joannes Thuilius, Funus perillustris …, cited by Kenneth J Franklin's introduction to Fabrici d'Acquapendente, De venarum ostiolis (1603), facsimile rpt., London, Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 1933, p. 13. For humanist influence on medicine at Padua, see Jerome J Bylebyl, ‘The school of Padua: humanistic medicine in the sixteenth century’, in Charles Webster (ed.), Health, medicine and mortality in the sixteenth century, Cambridge University Press, 1979, pp. 335–70.

103 For its reception, see Thomas M Greene, The light in Troy: imitation and discovery in Renaissance poetry, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1982; George W Pigman III, ‘Versions of imitation in the Renaissance’, Renaiss. Q., 1980, 33: 1–32. For the foundations of emulation, which is Erasmus's theory, see Marjorie O'Rourke Boyle, Erasmus on language and method in theology, University of Toronto Press, 1977, pp 3–57.

104 French, op. cit., note 24 above, pp. 150–285.

105 Simone Mazauric, ‘La diffusion du savoir en dehors des circuits savants: le bureau d'adresse de Thóéophraste Renaudot’, in Hans Bols and Françoise Waquet (eds), Commercium litterarium: la communication dans la République des Lettres, 1600–1750, Amsterdam, APA-Holland University Press, 1994, pp. 229–58, on pp. 168–9.

106 Waquet, op. cit., note 92 above, p. 478.