Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T21:20:09.543Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Yin Yang: A New Perspective on Culture

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 February 2015

Tony Fang*
Affiliation:
Stockholm University, Sweden

Abstract

In this article I propose a Yin Yang perspective to understand culture. Based on the indigenous Chinese philosophy of Yin Yang, I conceptualize culture as possessing inherently paradoxical value orientations, thereby enabling it to embrace opposite traits of any given cultural dimension. I posit that potential paradoxical values coexist in any culture; they give rise to, exist within, reinforce, and complement each other to shape the holistic, dynamic, and dialectical nature of culture. Seen from the Yin Yang perspective, all cultures share the same potential in value orientations, but at the same time they are also different from each other because each culture is a unique dynamic portfolio of self-selected globally available value orientations as a consequence of that culture's all-dimensional learning over time.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Copyright
Copyright © International Association for Chinese Management Research 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arnett, J. J. 2002. The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10): 774783.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. 1989. Managing across borders: The transnational solution. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Benet-Martinez, V., Leu, J., Lee, F., & Morris, M. 2002. Negotiating biculturalism: Cultural Frame-Switching in Biculturals with ‘oppositional’ vs. ‘compatible’ identities. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33(5): 492516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Bertalanffy, L. 1968. Passages from general system theory. [Last accessed 5 May 2005.] Available from URL: http://www.panarchy.org/vonbertalanffy/systems.1968.html Google Scholar
Bird, A., & Fang, T. 2009. Editorial: Cross cultural management in the age of globalization. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 9(2): 139143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bird, A., & Stevens, M. J. 2003. Toward an emergent global culture and the effects of globalization on obsolescing national cultures. Journal of International Management, 9(4): 395407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyacigiller, N. A., Kleinnberg, J., Phillips, M. E., & Sackmann, S. A. 2003. Conceptualizing culture: Elucidating the streams of research in international cross-cultural management. In Punnett, B.J. & Shenkar, O. (Eds.), Handbook for international management research (2nd ed.): 99167. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Brannen, M. Y. 2004. When Mickey loses face: Recontextualization, semantic fit, and the semiotics of foreignness. Academy of Management Review, 29(4): 593616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brannen, M. Y., & Salk, J. 2000. Partnering across borders: Negotiating organizational culture in a German-Japanese joint venture. Human Relations, 53(4): 451487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brannen, M. Y., & Thomas, D. 2010. Bicultural individuals in organizations: Implications and opportunity. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 10(1): 516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, D. E. 1991. Human universals. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Cameron, K. S., & Quinn, R. E. 1999. Designing and changing organizational culture based on the competing values framework. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman.Google Scholar
Chen, G.-M. 2008. Bian (Change): A perpetual discourse of I Ching . Intercultural Communication Studies, 17(4): 716.Google Scholar
Chen, M.-J. 2002. Transcending paradox: The Chinese ‘middle way’ perspective. Asian Pacific Journal of Management, 19(2/3): 179199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, M.-J. 2008. Reconceptualizing the competition-cooperation relationship: A transparadox perspective. Journal of Management Inquiry, 17(4): 288304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chevrier, S. 2009. Is national culture still relevant to management in a global context? The case of Switzerland. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 9(2): 169183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiu, C.-Y., & Kwan, L. Y. Y. 2010. Culture and creativity: A process model. Management and Organization Review, 6(3): 447461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, J. C. 1990. Taoism: The way of the mystic. Wellingborough, UK: Aquarian Press.Google Scholar
Eisenhardt, K. M. 2000. Paradox, spirals, ambivalence: The new language of change and pluralism. Academy of Management Review, 25(4): 703705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fang, T. 2003. A critique of Hofstede's fifth national culture dimension. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 3(3): 347368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fang, T. 2005-2006. From ‘onion’ to ‘ocean’: Paradox and change in national cultures. International Studies of Management & Organization, 35(4): 7190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fang, T. 2010. Asian management research needs more self-confidence: Reflection on Hofstede (2007) and beyond. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 27(1): 155170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fang, T., Zhao, S., & Worm, V. 2008. Editorial: The changing Chinese culture and business behaviour. International Business Review, 17(2): 141145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faure, G. O., & Fang, T. 2008. Changing Chinese values: Keeping up with paradoxes. International Business Review, 17(2): 194207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feathcrstone, M. (Ed.), 1990. Global culture: Nationalism, globalization and modernity. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Fletcher, R., & Fang, T. 2006. Assessing the impact of culture on relationship creation and network formation in emerging Asian markets. European Journal of Marketing, 40: 430446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fung, Y.-L. 1966. A short history of Chinese philosophy. New York: The Free Press. (First published in 1948).Google Scholar
Gao, G., Ting-Toomey, S., & Gudykunst, W. B. 1996. Chinese communication processes. In Bond, M. H. (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology: 280-293. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Graham, A. C. 1986. Yin-Yang and the nature of correlative thinking. Singapore: Institute of East Asian Philosophies, National University of Singapore.Google Scholar
Hampden-Turner, C. 1981. Maps of the mind. London: Mitchell Beazley.Google Scholar
‘Harmonious society’. 2007. (September 29). People's Daily. [Last accessed 30 December 2009.] Available from URL: http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90002/92169/92211/6274603.html Google Scholar
Hatch, M.J. 1993. The dynamics of organizational culture. Academy of Management Review, 18(4): 657693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Held, D., & McGrew, A. (Eds.), 2003. The global transformations reader: An introduction to the globalization debate (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Hermans, H.J. M., & Kempen, H.J. G. 1998. Moving cultures: The perilous problems of cultural dichotomies in a globalizing society. American Psychologist, 53(10): 11111120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofstede, G. 1980. Culture's consequences: International differences in work related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. 1991. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. 2001. Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. 2007. Asian management in the 21st century. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 24(4): 411420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. H. 1988. The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. Organizational Dynamics, 16(4): 521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. 2005. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Holden, N. J. 2002. Cross-cultural management: A knowledge management perspective. Harlow, England: Financial Times/Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Hong, Y., & Chiu, C. 2001. Toward a paradigm shift: From cross-cultural differences in social cognition to social-cognitive mediation of cultural differences. Social Cognition, 19(3): 181196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hong, Y., Morris, M. W., Chiu, C., & Benet-Martinez, V. 2000. Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55(7): 709720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hong, Y., Wan, C., No, S., & Chiu, C. 2007. Multicultural identities. In Kitayama, S. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology: 323-345. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J. Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. 2004. Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Huang, Z., & Zhang, A. 2010. In a ‘first’, gay couple ties the knot. China Daily, 13 Jan (page 1, cover story). [Last accessed 13 January 2010.] Available from URL: http://www2.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-01/13/content_9310315.htm Google Scholar
Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. 2005. Modernization, cultural change, and democracy: The human development sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
ITIM. 2009. Cultural dimension. [Last accessed 15 May 2010.] Available from URL: http://www.geert-hofstede.com Google Scholar
Ji, L. J., Nisbett, R. E., & Su, Y. 2001. Culture, change, and prediction. Psychological Science, 12(6): 450456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkman, B. L., Lowe, K. B., & Gibson, C. B. 2006. A quarter century of Culture's Consequences: A review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede's cultural values framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(3): 285320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kogut, B., & Singh, H. 1988. The effect of national culture on the choice of entry mode. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(3): 411432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawrence, P., & Lorsch, J. 1967. Differentiation and integration in complex organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 12(1): 130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Y.-T. 2000. What is missing in Chinese-Western dialectical reasoning? American Psychologist, 55(9): 10651067.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, Y.-T., & Wang, D.-Y. 2003. Aboriginal people in Taiwan, continental China and the Americas: Ethnic inquiry into common root and ancestral connection. In Li, X. & Pan, Z. (Eds.), Taiwan in the twenty-first century: 63-82. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.Google Scholar
Lee, Y.-T., Han, A.-G., Byron, T. K., & Fan, H.-X. 2008. Daoist Leadership: Theory and application. In Chen, C.-C. & Lee, Y.-T. (Eds.), Leadership and management in China: Philosophies, theories and practices: 83-107. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Leung, A. K.-Y., Maddux, W. W., Galinsky, A. D., & Chiu, C.-Y. 2008. Multicultural experience enhances creativity: The when and how. American Psychologist, 63(3): 169181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leung, K. 2008. Chinese culture, modernization, and international business. International Business Review, 17(2): 184187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leung, K., & Bond, M. H. 2004. Social axioms: A model for social beliefs in multicultural perspective. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36: 119197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leung, K., Bhagat, R. S., Buchan, N. R., Erez, M., & Gibson, C. B. 2005. Culture and international business: Recent advances and their implications for future research. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(4): 357378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, M. W. 2000. Exploring paradox: Toward a more comprehensive guide. Academy of Management Review, 25(4): 760776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, R. D. 2000. When cultures collide: Managing successfully across cultures (2nd rev. ed.). London: Nicholas Brealey.Google Scholar
Li, P. P. 1998. Towards a geocentric framework of organizational form: A holistic, dynamic and paradoxical approach. Organization Studies, 19(5): 829861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, P. P. 2008. Toward a geocentric framework of trust: An application to organizational trust. Management and Organization Review, 4(3): 413439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, P. P. 2011a. The rigour-relevance balance for engaged scholarship: New frame and new agenda for trust research and beyond. Journal of Trust Research, 1(1): 121.Google Scholar
Li, P. P. 2011b. Toward an integrative framework of indigenous research: The geocentric implications of Yin-Yang balance. Asia Pacific Journal of Management (forthcoming).Google Scholar
Luo, Y. D. 2005. Coopetition in international business. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press.Google Scholar
Maslow, A. H. 1954. Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Brothers.Google Scholar
McSweeney, B. 2002. Hofstede's model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faith - a failure of analysis. Human Relations, 55(1): 89118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McSweeney, B. 2009. Dynamic diversity: Variety and variation within countries. Organization Studies, 30(9): 933957.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, K. E. 2006. Asian management research needs more self-confidence. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 23(2): 119137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mok, A., & Morris, M. W. 2010. Asian-Americans' creative styles in Asian and American situations: Assimilative and contrastive responses as a function of bicultural identity integration. Management and Organization Review, 6(3): 371390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mok, A., Cheng, C.-Y., & Morris, M. W. 2010. Matching versus mismatching cultural norms in performance appraisal: Effects of the cultural setting and bicultural identity integration. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 10(1): 1735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naisbitt, J., & Naisbitt, D. 2010. China's megatrends: The eight pillars of a new society. New York: Harper Business.Google Scholar
Needham, J. 1956. Science and civilisation in China: Vol. II. History of Scientific Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Osland, J. S., & Bird, A. 2000. Beyond sophisticated stereotyping: Cultural sensemaking in context. Academy of Management Executive, 14(1): 6579.Google Scholar
Peng, K. 1997. Naive dialecticism and its effects on reasoning and judgment about contradiction. Doctoral dissertation, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. 1999. Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54(9): 741754.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. 2000. Dialectical responses to questions about dialectical thinking. American Psychologist, 55(9): 10671068.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phan, P., Zhou, J., & Abrahamson, E. 2010. Creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship in China. Management and Organization Review, 6(2): 175194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, M. S., & Van de Ven, A. H. 1989. Using paradox to build management and organization theories. Academy of Management Review, 14(4): 562578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popper, K. R. 2002. The logic of scientific discovery. London: Routledge. (Original work published in 1959).Google Scholar
Ralston, D. A., Gustafson, D. J., Cheung, F., & Terpstra, R. H. 1993. Differences in managerial value: A study of U.S., Hong Kong and PRC managers. Journal of International Business Studies, 24(3): 249275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riegel, K. F. 1973. Dialectic operations: The final period of cognitive development. Human Development, 16(5): 346370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, R. 1995. Globalization: Time-space and homogeneity-heterogeneity. In Featherstone, M., Las, S. & Robertson, R. (Eds.), Global modernities: 25-44. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Rokcach, M. 1973. The nature of human values. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Sackmann, S. A., & Phillips, M. E. 2004. Contextual influence on culture research: Shifting assumptions for new workplace realities. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 4(3): 370390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, S. J. 1992. Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In Zanna, M. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, 25: 165. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Shapiro, F. L., Von Glinow, M. A., & Xiao, Z. 2007. Toward polycontcxtually sensitive research methods. Management and Organization Review, 3(1): 129152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shenkar, O., Luo, Y., & Yeheskel, O. 2008. From ‘distance’ to ‘friction’: Substituting metaphors and redirecting intercultural research. Academy of Management Review, 33(4): 905923.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soderberg, A.-M., & Holden, N. 2002. Rethinking cross cultural management in a globalizing business world. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 2(1): 103121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trompenaars, F. 1994. Riding the waves of culture: Understanding diversity in global business. Chicago, IL: Irwin.Google Scholar
Tsui, A. 2009. Editor's introduction - Autonomy of inquiry: Shaping the future of emerging scientific communities. Management and Organization Review, 5(1): 114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tung, R. L. 2008. The cross-cultural research imperative: The need to balance cross-national and intra-national diversity. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(1): 4146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tung, R. L., & Verbeke, A. 2010. Beyond Hofstede and GLOBE: Improving the quality of cross-cultural research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(8): 12591274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tung, R. L., Worm, V., & Fang, T. 2008. Sino-western business negotiations revisited - 30 years after China's open door policy. Organizational Dynamics, 37(1): 6074.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van de Vliert, E., Einarsen, S., Euwema, M. C., &Janssen, O. 2009. Ecological limits to globalization of managerial situations. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 9(2): 185198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, D.-Y., & Song, B.-Z. 2007. Mystery of the Indians. (Yindi'an zhi mi). Beijing: Zhongguo shi dai jingji chu ban she. (In Chinese).Google Scholar