In July of this year a three week study of ancient ports in the Libyan Pentapolis was undertaken by Robert Yorke, John Little and David Davidson. The principal achievement was the surveying of the remains of the harbours of Tolmeita and Tocra, with a brief investigation of the remains at Apollonia providing useful comparative material. Visits were also made to Zawiat el Haniya (? Ausigda), Zawiat el Hammama (Phycus) an d Driana (Hadrianopolis) but these proved, as expected, to have limited underwater remains.

Previous accounts of the ancient harbour at Tolmeita failed to agree on the exact location of the port but this controversy would now seem to have been resolved as a result of the discovery of submerged quays, roads and buildings and the underwater remains of protective harbour moles attached to the small islands in the bay to the East of the promontory. All these structures are now in an advanced state of decay as a result of wave action over the centuries but the main outlines are still apparent underwater.

With financial aid from the Society for Libyan Studies I was able to visit Libya on special leave from the British Museum between 21 April and 11 May. The object of the visit was to examine early Islamic epigraphic material, in particular any that might contribute to a knowledge of the archaeology of Ajdabiyah and contemporary sites. One week was spent in Tripoli as a guest of the Department of Antiquities, one week with Dr Whitehouse's team at Ajdabiyah and several days at Cyrene, Tolmeita and in other parts of Cyrenaica.

At Tripoli Museum a fine collection of Kufic gravestones collected in and around the city was examined. These can be divided into two chronological and stylistic groups. The earliest pieces of the period of Aghlabid and Fāṭimid domination (third–fourth centuries A.H./ninthtenth centuries A.D.), are roughly incised rectangular or irregular slabs of stone or marble. The Kufic is plain, ornament being generally limited to bifurcation of the terminals; however, elements of foliation are discernible, notably on an example dated 248/862 (Rossi, Iscrizioni arabi e turchi del museo di Tripoli (1953) no. I). By contrast, those inscriptions which belong to the Khazrūnid and Muwaḥḥid periods (fifth-sixth centuries A.H./eleventh–twelfth centuries A.D.) are carved in relief on finely shaped marble blocks of a distinctive elongated type. The lettering is in the floriated style with additional decorative devices such as loops and right-angled bends in the uprights. Borders are adorned with vine-leaf or geometric motifs. The apparently abrupt transition to this evolved type of funerary monument is striking evidence of the high cultural level attained in Tripoli soon after the rise to power of an independent local dynasty.

The main intention of this survey, for which I was awarded the first Libya Fellowship of the Society, was to examine a number of sites in Libya and also in adjacent countries which are either of the same period as the monuments in Ajdabiyah, or have relevance to the development of these monuments.

On the way to Libya I visited the related, if somewhat later monuments of Palermo, built in the Arabo-Norman style, but utilizing both workmen and a number of constructional techniques from North Africa. I was fortunate in being guided around the various sites by members of the Ente per i Palazzi e Ville di Sicilia, and was able to use the recent study of Palermo by Mrs D. L. Jones, currently awaiting publication. The architectural details, and many of the designs and patterns involved relate very strongly to the north African forms, and emphasise the fact that the Mediterranean was still much more of a linking than a divisive factor even after the Muslims had lost control of Sicily and some of the other islands.

Mr. Peter Holmes was able to return to photograph the wall in the Gebel south-west of Asabaa, called Hadd Hajar, mentioned in the Society's Second Annual Report, 1970–1, p. 11. Pl. VIII shows one of his photographs. In the foreground is Ras at-Tays al-Abyad, and the main wall below, which runs for 6 km. to Ras Sa'id. A small quantity of pottery found by the watch-tower was clearly Roman, and included an amphora rim and small pieces of late Roman lamp. 2½ km. south of Hadd Hajar near its south-west end another watch-tower was found on Ras at-Tays al-Aswad.

Since the events briefly recorded in last year's Report, continuous excavation has taken place in the Turkish cemetery of Sidi Khrebish in Benghazi. During this period much important information has been gained concerning the Hellenistic and Roman city of Berenice. The excavations were supervised by staff sent out from England by the Society, while workmen and facilities were provided by the Department of Antiquities, which had already begun rescue work ahead of the bull-dozers. The Society's excavations started in September 1971 as an emergency operation, because at that time the site was thought to be available for only about three months in advance of the redevelopment mentioned in the last Report. In fact, the municipal authorities have held up their plans, so that by September 1972 an area of over three acres (1·36 hectares) had been systematically excavated. It is hoped that a further stay of execution of the redevelopment plan will make another four or five acres in the eastern part of the cemetery available for the resumption of excavations in November.

The pottery so far examined is of great interest, and a full publication of the many sealed groups will undoubtedly form a valuable addition to our knowledge of the Hellenistic and Roman wares of the whole Mediterranean basin. Though little material classifiable as fine wares has yet been recovered belonging to the fourth century A.D. and later, in all other periods the most marked characteristic of the fine wares is their tremendous variety, and the fact that both eastern and western products are represented in comparable quantities. In the Hellenistic period, both Italian and Greek black-glazed wares are found, the latter slightly predominating, as well as a flourishing local industry producing similar shapes in a rather coarser fabric; Megarian bowls are present in limited quantity, principally in an orange micaceous fabric with a glossy slip of varying colour, but at least four other fabrics have been identified, one of them Athenian. The Eastern Sigillata wares A and B both occur in equal quantity, and Çandarli ware is also found; Arretine and its related Italian wares were imported in great quantities, and a certain amount of south and central Gaulish samian regularly occurs, but it is never common. Another red-gloss ware that is notable for its regular presence on this site and for the variety of its forms is that tentatively identified by Dr J. W. Hayes as Cypriot Sigillata: the type series for this ware at Sidi Khrebish will extend considerably that published by Hayes (Report of the Dept. of Antiquities of Cyprus, 1967), and will add many forms that are common to the repertoire of the early Roman Sigillata wares as a whole.

In 1971 the Libyan Department of Antiquities invited the Society to conduct a trial excavation at Ajdabiyah, with a view to defining the extent of the medieval Islamic occupation and determining whether the site would repay further investigation. The prognosis was good. Documentary evidence indicated that Ajdabiyah was already a caravan town in the ninth century A.D., that it flourished under the Fatimids and that it was destroyed or severely damaged when the Bani Sulaim and the Bani Hilal invaded the Maghrib in 1051. Furthermore, earlier excavations had revealed two medieval monuments, a ruined qasr and a mosque, both apparently Fatimid. As expected, the trial excavation, which was described in the Society's Annual Report for 1971, yielded positive results and in April 1972 we began a second, larger campaign. During the season we resumed excavations at the mosque and planned in detail the remains of the qasr. The Director-General of Antiquities, Mr Sadawiya, and the Controller of Antiquities in W. Cyrenaica, Mr. Abdussaid, did everything in their power to make the expedition a success and our Inspector, Mr Warfelli, gave valuable on-the-spot assistance. The Society sent a team of nine—Hilde Ainger, Sarah Jennings, Ruth Whitehouse, George Ainger, Warwick Ball, Peter Donaldson, David Jeffery, John Morrish and myself—and the Department of Antiquities provided accommodation and labour. The Trustees of the British Museum kindly released Mr Nicholas Lowick, who joined us to study the coins and epigraphy, see p. 4. The Department of Civil Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology, generously lent us surveying instruments. The project, therefore, was a combined operation and I wish to thank most warmly all those concerned.

If Britain had needed a written constitution, the country would not have been short of draftsmen to prepare fundamental laws defining the legislature and the executive and delegating to them appropriate powers of government. However, their services have not been required. It has been mainly in the past twenty-five years that they have found an outlet for their talents through the drafting of constitutions for the many sovereign states that emerged during a period of imperial fission. Although these constitutions have differed in content, they have one thing in common: all of them include constitutional concepts and principles derived from the work of Jeremy Bentham.

It is surprising, however, to find that Jeremy Bentham himself drafted a constitution for the ‘Barbary State’ of Tripoli in 1823. At the time, Tripoli was part of the Ottoman Turkish realm; a form of Islamic state in which concepts of government and law differed so clearly from those of the secular nation-states of Europe that comparison cannot be made succinctly. However, comparisons are unnecessary for present purposes. The operative point in 1823 was that Muslim law and Ottoman tradition left no room for the introduction of a secular constitution in one of its provinces. Nothing short of provincial secession or political revolution at the centre-the two most trodden paths to constitutional reform—could bring about what Bentham would have liked to achieve with his pen. He was not unaware of the difficulties that faced the project and this is reflected in the form he gave to his draft; for it is open to question whether it amounted to what is usually expected of a ‘constitution’.