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The Paris Peoples' Tribunal and the Istanbul Trials: Archives of the Armenian Genocide

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 February 2016

GABRIELLE SIMM
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Abstract

The decisions of international courts and tribunals affect how we read history. Alternative tribunals, such as peoples’ tribunals, attempt to write alternative histories to counter the official versions. This article locates controversies over the Armenian genocide in debates about the relationship between history and international law. It considers ways of reading archives and the role of archives in informing those debates. It compares the Istanbul war crimes trials held in 1919–1920 before the Ottoman Military Tribunals with the Paris session of the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal held in 1984 that dealt with questions of history and memory through the juridical format of a hearing. A century after the events of 1915, the contested historiography of the Armenian genocide influences how international lawyers and historians seek to pass judgment on the past.

Keywords

peoples' tribunalsgenocidearchivesArmenianhistory
Type
HAGUE INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS: International Criminal Courts and Tribunals
Information
Leiden Journal of International Law , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , March 2016 , pp. 245 - 268
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation of the Leiden Journal of International Law 2016 

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References

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23 Examples include the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal hearing on genocide in Sri Lanka: ‘Peoples’ Tribunal on Sri Lanka’, Bremen, 7–10 December 2013, 15–28; the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal, ‘Session on the Canadian Mining Industry: Hearing on Latin America’, Montreal Canada, May 29–June 1 2014, lentraidemissionnaire.org/wp-content/uploads/final_ruling_ppt_canada.pdf, ‘The Policies of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund’, West Berlin, 26–29 September 1988.

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34 Ibid., at 2.

35 ‘There is no political power without control of the archive, if not memory.’ ibid., at 4, at note 1.

36 A.L. Stoler, ‘Colonial Archives and the Arts of Governance,’ (2002) 2 Archival Science 87, at 107.

37 Ibid., at 97.

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48 Ibid., at 52.

49 Ibid.

50 Ibid., at 50.

51 ‘The British Empire was widely recognised as the legitimate and primary protector of minority interests in the Ottoman Empire’: Tusan, M., ‘“Crimes Against Humanity”: Human Rights, The British Empire, and the Origins of the Response to the Armenian Genocide’ (2014) 119 American Historical Review 47CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 56.

52 Ibid., at 49.

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54 Relevant Russian documents are held at the Russian State Archive of the Russian Empire, St Petersburg and State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow. See further, M. Reynolds, Shattering Empires: the Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empire 1908–1918 (2011). On French sources, see, A. Beylerian (ed.), Les Grandes Puissances, I’Empire Ottoman et les Arméniens dans Les Archives Françaises (1914–1918), Recueil de Documents (1983). For an overview of sources held in the British National Archives, see ‘The National Archives, Spotlights on History, ‘the Armenian Massacres’ www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/spotlights/armenian.htm.

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58 First Counsellor, Turkish Embassy in Washington Güçlü, D.C. Y., ‘Will Untapped Ottoman Archives Reshape the Armenian Debate?’, (2009) 16 Middle East Quarterly 35Google Scholar available online: www.meforum.org/2114/ottoman-archives-reshape-armenian-debate

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60 Ibid.

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65 Ibid., at 128.

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68 Anatolian News Agency, 11 April 2005 cited in Sarafian, supra note 61, at note 28.

69 G. Robertson, ‘Was there an Armenian Genocide?’ Geoffrey Robertson QC's Opinion, 9 October 2009, para. 72, www.groong.com/Geoffrey-Robertson-QC-Genocide.pdf. See also G. Robertson, An Inconvenient Genocide: Who Now Remembers the Armenians? (2015).

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72 Daily newspaper Tercümen-ı Hakikat of 16 April 1920 cited in Akçam, T., ‘The Formation and Operation of the Ottoman Military Tribunals’, in Dadrian, V.N. and Akçam, T. (eds.), Judgment at Istanbul: The Armenian Genocide Trials (2011), 251Google Scholar. Confusion over the names of these tribunals led the Sultan to change the name from ‘Istanbul Military Administration Tribunal (February 1919) to ‘First Military Tribunal’ (from 8 March 1919). This tribunal is referred to as ‘The Extraordinary Court-Martial’ (Dadrian, supra note 62), ‘the Ottoman State Special Military Tribunal’ (Balint, supra note 66) and ‘Ottoman Military Tribunals’ (Akçam, supra note 72).

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82 Kévorkian, supra note 74, at 796. Damad Ferid Pasha, also spelt Damat Ferid Paşa, held the office of Grand Vizier (similar to a Prime Minister in other European countries at the time) from 4 March until 2 October 1919 and then again from 5 until 21 October 1920

83 Treaty of Sèvres; cf. 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Declaration of Amnesty 1923 (1924) 18 American Journal of International Law 92.

84 Willis, supra note 75, at 158.

85 G.J. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance (2000), 139.

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99 Rigaux, Ibid., at 10.

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103 Ibid., at 130.

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105 Ibid.

106 Ibid., at 132.

107 Libaridian, supra note 1, 155.

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110 Ibid., at 217

111 Orford, supra note 13, at 9.

112 Marco Roscini distinguishes between a continuing wrongful act and its effects under the International Law Commission Articles on State Responsibility, Art. 14: Roscini, M., ‘Establishing State Responsibility for Historical Injustices: the Armenian Case’, (2014) 14 International Criminal Law Review 291CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 301.

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119 The Martens Clause provides, ‘Until a more complete code of the laws of war is issued, the High Contracting Parties think it right to declare that in cases not included in the Regulations adopted by them, populations and belligerents remain under the protection and empire of the principles of international law, as they result from the usages established between civilized nations, from the laws of humanity and the requirements of public conscience.’ 1899 Convention II with respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, (Hague II), 32 Stat 1803, 1 Bevans 249, Preamble.

120 Libaridian, supra note 1, at 223.

121 Robertson, supra note 69, para. 57.

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124 Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Thirty-second Session, 5 May–25 July 1980, Supplement No 10, UN Doc. A/35/10, Draft Art. 19(3)(c).

125 General Assembly, Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts UN Doc. A/RES/56/83 (2001) and corrected by UN Doc. A/56/49(Vol. I)/Corr.4.

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135 Cf. B. Whittaker, Revised and Updated Report on the Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, UN Doc E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6, (1985), para. 24.

136 European Stability Initiative, Noah's Dove Returns: Armenia, Turkey and the Debate on Genocide (2009), available at www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_108.pdf.

137 Öktem, E., ‘Turkey: Successor or Continuing State of the Ottoman Empire’, (2011) 24 LJIL 561CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 577; Avedian, V., ‘State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide’, (2012) 23 European Journal of International Law 797CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Taçar and Gauin describe Avedian as ‘provocative’, ‘defaming’ [sic] and as a ‘political pamphleteer’. Taçar and Gauin, supra note 116, at 822.

138 Diary entry, recording a speech, identified as document L3 or Exhibit USA-28 written by Adolf Hitler on 22 August 1939. See further K. Bardakjian, Hitler and the Armenian Genocide (1985), R. Melson, Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust (1992), N.M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth Century Europe (2002), Y. Güçlü, The Holocaust and the Armenian Case in Comparative Perspective (2012).

139 Hovannisian, supra note 78, at 21.

140 G. Simpson, ‘Review Essay’, (2005) 1 International Journal of Law in Context 106.

141 Dadrian, supra note 62, at 133; Höss, A., ‘The Trial of Perpetrators by the Turkish Military Tribunals: The Case of Yozgat’, in Hovannisian, R. G. (ed.), The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics (1992), 221Google Scholar.

142 F. Çetin, My Grandmother: A Memoir, translated by M. Freely (2008); Miller and Miller, supra note 133.

143 Göçek, F.M., ‘Reading Genocide: Turkish Historiography on 1915’, in Suny, R.G., Göçek, F.M., and Naimark, N.M. (eds.), A Question of Genocide: Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire (2011), 42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

144 Ibid., at 42.

145 Ibid., at 46.

146 Ibid., at 52.

147 Akton, G., ‘The Armenian Problem and International Law’, in Ataöv, T. (ed.), The Armenians in the Late Ottoman Period (2001) 263, at 264Google Scholar.

148 Dadrian, supra note 62, at 143

149 Bloxham, supra note 101, at 273.

150 Ibid., at 274.

151 Robertson, supra note 69, Para. 37.

152 Bloxham, supra note 101, at 272.

153 Cf. Sullo: parliaments passing legislation to acknowledge the Armenian Genocide is ‘misappropriation of the role of the historian by the legislator.’ Sullo, supra note 17, at 430.

154 Bloxham, supra note 101, at 275.

155 Affaire Perinçek c. Suisse, Requête no 27510/08, 17 décembre 2013, renvoi devant la Grande Chambre 02/06/2014 (‘Perinçek Judgment’), para. 3.

156 Ibid., para. 9.

157 Ibid., paras. 11–13.

158 Ibid., paras. 129–30.

159 Perinçek v. Switzerland, Grand Chamber Judgment of 15 October 2015, Application No 27510/08, at para. 300.

160 Perinçek Judgment, supra note 155, para. 102.

161 Ibid., para. 99.

162 Ibid., para. 117.

163 Simpson, supra note 140, at 101.

164 Ibid., at 107.

165 On framing crimes through the historical context at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, see Wilson, supra note 14, at 77.

166 Yavuz, M. Hakan, ‘Contours of Scholarship on Armenian-Turkish Relations’, (2011) 20 Middle East Critique 231, at 233CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

167 Robertson, supra note 69, para. 64.

168 International Association of Genocide Scholars, ‘Armenian Genocide Resolution’ www.genocidescholars.org/sites/default/files/document%09%5Bcurrent-page%3A1%5D/documents/IAGSArmenian%20Genocide%20Resolution%20_0.pdf

169 Schabas, supra note 122, at 259.

170 ‘Of the three great genocides in the twentieth century, those of the Armenians, the Jews and Gypsies, and the Tutsi, . . .’ W.A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law (2009), ix; Cf. ‘An impartial legal observer, having no knowledge about the background, the debates and the validity of the account [in the Cambridge History of Turkey cited] would be likely to conclude that such an account of the 1915 events points to crimes against humanity rather than genocide as the appropriate nomenclature’ 260; it may be easier to agree upon the term crimes against humanity than to admit to genocide, and. . .this may open a pathway to a shared narrative.’ Schabas, supra note 122, at 268. Schabas refers to M. Şűkrű, Hanîoğlu, ‘The Second Constitutional Period, 1908–1918’, in R. Kasaba (ed.) The Cambridge History of Turkey (2008), 62 at 96.

171 Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal on Sri Lanka, supra note 23, at 15.

172 ‘Is it possible that the antonym of “forgetting” is not “remembering”, but justice?’, Y.H. Yersushalmi, Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory (1982), 117, cited in Derrida, supra note 33, at 77.