Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T02:08:12.408Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Fascism, Imperialism and International Law: An Arch Met a Motorway and the Rest is History . . .

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 July 2018

ROSE PARFITT Open the ORCID record for ROSE PARFITT [Opens in a new window]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

What would happen to our understanding of international law and its relationship with violence if we collapsed the distinction between our supposedly post-colonial ‘present’ and its colonial ‘past’; between the sovereign spaces of the twenty-first century global order, and the integrated, hierarchical space of fascist imperialism? I respond to this question through an investigation into the physical contours of a precise ‘imperial location’: 30°31′00″N, 18°34′00″E. These co-ordinates refer to a point on the sea-edge of the Sirtica that is occupied today by the Ra's Lanuf oil refinery, one of Libya's three most important such facilities. In the late 1930s, however, during Libya's period of fascist colonial rule, this was the point at which a state-of-the-art motorway, the Via litoranea libica, was crossed by a giant triumphal arch, the Arco dei Fileni. Through a chronotopic reading of the temporal, spatial and interpellative aspects of this point, its architecture and its history, I suggest that fascist lawyers, officials and intellectuals accepted a horrifying truth about the relationship between international law and violence – a relationship that twenty-first century doctrinal international law is loath to confront, concerning the inherently expansionist logic of the sovereign state, and the inevitably hierarchical ordering of the ‘international community’ which stems from it.

Keywords

fascismimperialismsovereigntystatehoodtemporality
Type
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL THEORY: Symposium on ‘Imperial Locations’
Information
Leiden Journal of International Law , Volume 31 , Issue 3 , September 2018 , pp. 509 - 538
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation of the Leiden Journal of International Law 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Lecturer in Law, Kent Law School / Australian Research Council Discovery (DECRA) Research Fellow, Melbourne Law School [[email protected] / [email protected]]. I would like to thank the many friends and colleagues whose comments, research assistance and encouragement contributed so much to the arguments presented here, including Noha Aboueldahab, Nesrine Badawi, Maddy Chiam, Tomaso Ferrando, Emily Grabham, Richard Joyce, Sara Kendall, Philip Kenrick, Martti Koskenniemi, John Morss, Luigi Nuzzo, Liliana Obregón, Alice Riccardi, Kerry Rittich, Lulu Weiss and, most of all, Luis Eslava. I am also extremely grateful to the Institute for International Law and the Humanities at Melbourne Law School, the Institute for Global Law and Policy at Harvard Law School, and the participants at the Law and Time Workshop at Kent Law School and at the Legal Theory Workshop at Melbourne Law School. The research presented here was funded by the Australian Research Council's Discovery programme, to which institution I extend my deepest thanks. The ideas and errors are all my own.

References

1 US National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, available at geonames.nga.mil/gns/html/ (accessed 9 May 2018).

2 Wright, J.L., ‘Mussolini, Libya and the Sword of Islam’, in Ben-Ghiat, R. and Fuller, M. (eds.), Italian Colonialism (2005), 121CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 122.

3 See, e.g., A.A. Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1932 (1994), 103–40; N. Labanca, La Guerra italiana per la Libia, 1911-1931 (2012).

4 See Parfitt, R.S., ‘Empire des Nègres Blancs: The Hybridity of International Personality and the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935-36’, (2011) 24 LJIL 849CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 M.H.H. MacCartney and P. Cremona, Italy's Foreign and Colonial Policy, 1914-1937 (1938), 4.

6 P. Kenrick, Tripolitania (2009), 154.

7 Ibid., at 156.

8 UN Doc. S/RES/1973 (2011), para. 1. See A. Orford, ‘What Kind of Law is This?’ LRB Blog, 29 March 2011; A. Orford, International Authority and the Responsibility to Protect (2011).

9 Ibrahim, A.B., ‘Dignity Operation forces recapture Ras Lanuf oil port’, Libya Observer, 14 March 2017Google Scholar.

10 Ibrahim, A.B., ‘Benghazi Defense Brigades capture Ras Lanuf Airport in central Libya’, Libya Observer, 3 March 2017Google Scholar.

11 See M. Fitzgerald and M. Toaldo, A Quick Guide to Libya's Main Players, European Council for Foreign Relations, available at www.ecfr.eu/mena/mapping_libya_conflict (accessed 9 May 2018).

12 Ibrahim, A.B., ‘Foreign airstrikes rescue Dignity Operation militias again’, Libya Observer, 18 September 2016Google Scholar.

13 Tsvetkova, M., ‘Exclusive: Russian Private Security Firm says it had Armed Men in East Libya’, Reuters, 11 March 2017Google Scholar.

14 A. al-Warfalli, ‘East Libyan commander Haftar says UN-backed government obsolete, hints may run in elections’, Reuters, 17 December 2017.

15 E. Schmitt, ‘Under Trump, U.S. Launched 8 Airstrikes Against ISIS in Libya. It Disclosed 4’, The New York Times, 8 March 2018.

16 Res. 1973 (2011), supra note 8, Preamble.

17 1945 Charter of the United Nations, 1 UNTS XVI (1945), Art. 2(4); Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment of 27 June 1986, [1986] ICJ Rep. 14, para. 188. See, e.g., O'Connell, M.E., ‘Peace and War’, in Fassbender, B. and Peters, A. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of International Law (2012), 272Google Scholar at 291.

18 UN Doc. A/RES/1514(XV) (1960); Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971, [1971] ICJ Rep. 16, at 31, para. 52.

19 See, e.g., A. Cassese, International Law (2005), 37; M.N. Shaw, International Law (2003), 30; P. Malanczuk, Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law (1997), 25.

20 See, e.g., A. Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (2004); G. Simpson, Great Powers and Outlaw States: Unequal Sovereigns in the International Legal Order (2004).

21 A. Orford, ‘On International Legal Method’, (2013) 1 London Review of International Law 166; Parfitt, R.S. ‘The Spectre of Sources’, (2014) 25 EJIL 297CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 See, most famously, C. Schmitt, The Nomos of the Earth in the International Law of the Jus Publicum Europaeum [1950] (2006).

23 See, e.g., A. Simpson, Mohawk Interruptus: Political Life Across the Borders of Settler States (2014).

24 These figures come from Cherif Bassiouni, chair of the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry on Libya which conducted a mission to Tripoli and rebel-held areas in April 2011 (‘Up to 15,000 killed in Libya war: UN rights expert’, Reuters, 10 June 2011) and US senator John McCain reporting figures from the National Transitional Council (in R. Mulholland and J. Deshmukh, ‘Residents flee Gaddafi hometown’, Sydney Morning Herald, 3 October 2011), respectively. See Orford, supra note 8; A. Çhubukçhu, ‘The Responsibility to Protect: Libya and the Problem of Transnational Solidarity’, (2013) 12 Journal of Human Rights 40.

25 L. Eslava, Local Space, Global Life: The Everyday Operation of International Law and Development (2015); L. Eslava, ‘The Materiality of International Law: Violence, History and Joe Sacco's The Great War’, (2017) London Review of International Law 49.

26 Bakhtin, M., ‘Forms of Time and the Chronotope in the Novel’, in Holquist, M. (ed.), The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M.M. Bakhtin (translated by Emerson, C. and Holquist, M.) (1981), 84Google Scholar; Bakhtin, M., ‘The Bildungsroman and its Significance in the History of Realism’, in Emerson, C. and Holquist, M. (eds.), Speech Genres and Other Late Essays (translated by McGee, V.W.) (1986)Google Scholar, 10. For a more developed account of this methodology, see Parfitt, R.S., ‘Newer is Truer: Time, Space, and Subjectivity at the Bandung Conference’, in Eslava, L., Fakhri, M. and Nesiah, V. (eds.), Bandung, Global History and International Law: Critical Pasts and Pending Futures (2017), 49CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a different application, see M. Valverde, Chronotopes of Law: Jurisdiction, Scale and Governance (2015).

27 UN Charter, supra note 17, Art. 1.

28 Kenrick, supra note 6, at 156.

29 Sallust, G.S., The War with Jugurtha, 2nd ed., (translated by Thayer, B.) (1931)Google Scholar, para. 79. See also Quinn, J., ‘Libya's Ancient Borders’, LRB Blog, 17 March 2014Google Scholar.

30 See, e.g., Melgrani, P., ‘The Cult of the Duce in Mussolini's Italy’, (1976) 11 Journal of Contemporary History 221CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 229–30.

31 See, e.g., D'Annunzio, G., ‘La Canzone del sangue’, in Andreoli, A. and Lorenzini, N. (eds.), Gabriele D'Annunzio, Versi d'amore e di gloria (1984), Vol. II, at 659Google Scholar. See Re, L., ‘Italians and the Invention of Race: The Poetics and Politics of Difference in the Struggle over Libya, 1890-1913’, (2010) 1 California Italian Studies 1Google Scholar, at 26.

32 Kenrick, supra note 6, at 154.

33 M. Fuller, Moderns Abroad: Architecture, Cities and Italian Imperialism (2007), 107–35.

34 C.E. Rava, quoted ibid., at 117.

35 C.E. Rava, quoted ibid., at 105.

36 From the poet Horace praising Emperor Augustus in the hymn ‘Carmen Saeculare’: ‘Alme Sol possis nihil Urbe Roma visere maius.’ (‘O fostering Sun, may you never see anything greater than the City of Rome.’).

37 Kenrick, supra note 6, at 155.

38 Ibid.

39 Fausto, F. Di, ‘Visione mediterranea della mia architettura’, (1937) 1 Liba 16Google Scholar.

40 Fuller, supra note 33, at 129; McLaren, B.L., ‘Architecture of Tourism in Italian Libya’, in Fuller, Ben-Ghiat and M. (eds.), supraGoogle Scholar note 2, at 171–3.

41 Kenrick, supra note 6, at 154.

42 Fuller, supra note 33, at 130.

43 Di Fausto, supra note 39, at 18.

44 A. Abel, ‘Dār al-Islām’, in P. Bearman et al. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islam, available at dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1703 (accessed 9 May 2018).

45 M. Dyal, ‘Mussolini's New Fascist Man’, Counter-Currents.com, 16 October 2012, available at www.counter-currents.com/2012/10/mussolinis-new-fascist-man (accessed 22 April 2018).

46 Mussolini, B., ‘Address to the National Corporative Council’, (14 November 1933), in Schnapp, J. T. (ed.), A Primer of Italian Fascism (translated by Schnapp, J.T., Sears, O.E. and Stampino, M.G.) (2000), 154Google Scholar at 163.

47 Spackman, B., ‘Fascist Purility’, (2001) 13 Qui Parle 13CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 24.

48 Antliff, M., ‘Fascism, Modernism, and Modernity’, (2002) 84 The Art Bulletin 148CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 150.

49 Marinetti, F.T., ‘The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism’, Le Figaro, 20 February 1909Google Scholar, quoted in L. Rainey et al. (eds. and trans.), Futurism: An Anthology (2009), 29.

50 ‘The Battle of Florence – Great Futurist Serata at the Verdi Theatre, December 12, 1913 – A Condensed (Physical and Spiritual) Report on the Battle – Marinetti's Speech’, Lacerba, 15 December 1913, quoted in G. Berghaus (ed.), F.T. Marinetti: Critical Writings (translated by D. Thompson) (2006), 175.

51 T.M. Marinetti, M. Carli and E. Settimelli, ‘Artistic Rights Championed by the Italian Futurists: A Manifesto to the Fascist Government’, L'Impero, March 1923, quoted in G. Prezzolini ‘Fascism and Futurism’, 3 July 1923, in Rainey et al., supra note 49, 275, at 276.

52 Prezzolini, supra note 51, at 275.

53 A. Sant'Elia, ‘Futurist Architecture’, (11 July 1914), in Rainey et al., supra note 49, 98 at 198. Sant'Elia's target was precisely the ‘neoclassical’ architectural style that the Arco dei Fileni exemplified. As his manifesto continued, for instance, ‘[t]he new beauty of cement and iron is profaned by the superimposition of carnivalesque decorative encrustations that are justified neither by structural necessity nor by our tastes, encrustations that take their origins from Egyptian, Byzantine, or Indian antiquities, or from that stupefying efflorescence of idiocy and impotence that has taken the name of neo-classicism’; ibid., at 201 (emphasis in the original).

54 Kenrick, supra note 6, at 155.

55 Fuller, supra note 33, at 3.

56 Wright, supra note 2, at 122.

57 Marinetti, supra note 49, at 51.

58 U. Boccioni, Pittura e scultura Futuriste (Dinamismo plastico) [1914] (1997). See Bergson, H., The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics [1934] (translated by Andison, M.L.) 1946)Google Scholar; Sorel, G., Reflections on Violence [1908] (Jennings, J. ed., 2004)Google Scholar.

59 Quoted in Antliff, M., ‘The Fourth Dimension and Futurism: A Politicized Space’, (2000) 82 The Art Bulletin 720CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 724.

60 Ibid., at 727.

61 Ibid., at 720.

62 F.T. Marinetti, La battaglia di Tripoli (26 Ottobre 1911) (1912), 45–6 (my translation.) My sincere thanks to Tomaso Ferrando for tracking down a copy of this text for me.

63 Marinetti, F.T., Carli, M. and Settimelli, E., ‘The Italian Empire [to Benito Mussolini – Head of the New Italy]’, in Rainey, L., Poggi, C. and Wittman, L. (eds.), Futurism: An Anthology (2009), 273Google Scholar at 274.

64 I. Balbo, speech to Volta Congress (4–8 October 1938), quoted in C.G. Segrè, Fourth Shore: The Italian Colonization of Libya (1974), 104.

65 A. Niceforo, L'Italia barbara contemporanea: Studi sull'Italia del Mezzogiorno (1898).

66 Re, supra note 31, at 20–1.

67 Senator Vitelleschi, speech before the Chamber of Deputies (1885), quoted in Fuller, supra note 33, at 44.

68 On the international legal history of the idea of ‘surplus population’ see A. Orford, ‘Surplus Population and the History of International Law’ (Centre for Critical International Law Annual Lecture, Kent Law School, 30 November 2017).

69 D. Grandi, ‘Speech before the Senate’ (4 June 1932), quoted in MacCartney and Cremona, supra note 5, at 284–5.

70 Baranello, A.M., ‘Giovanni Pascoli's “La grande proletaria si è mossa”: A Translation and Critical Introduction’, (2011) 2 California Italian Studies (2011) 5Google Scholar.

71 Ibid., at 8.

72 Ibid., at 11.

73 Ibid., at 10.

74 Re, supra note 31, at 24–5.

75 Regio decreto-legge, 17 May 1938, n. 701. See Segrè, supra note 64, at 103.

76 Ibid., at 94.

77 Decreto governatoriale, 18 July 1922, ser. A, n. 660; Regio decreto, 15 November 1923, n. 3204; Decreto governatoriale 11 April 1923, ser. A, n. 320. See Segrè, supra note 64, at 49.

78 Fuller, supra note 33, at 195.

79 Segrè, supra note 64, at xvi. The image of Italy as ‘[l]a grande Patria dalle quattro sponde’ came, as so often, from D'Annunzio. See ‘La canzone dei trofei’, (1911) reprinted in A. Andreoli and N. Lorenzini (eds.), supra note 31, at 676–7.

80 McLaren, supra note 40, at 168.

81 Segrè, supra note 64, at 105; 201, n. 15.

82 A. Lessona, Minister for Italian Africa, speech, (19 May 1937), quoted in Segrè, C.G., ‘Italo Balbo and the Colonization of Libya’, (1972) 7 Journal of Contemporary History 141CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See Segrè, supra note 64, at 107.

83 Quoted in Segrè, supra note 64, at 109. See A. Grande, Poesie in Africa (1938).

84 Ibid., 89–90.

85 Wright, supra note 2, at 125.

86 Quoted in ibid.

87 Ibid.

88 R.D. 3 April 1937, n. 896. See Segrè, supra note 64, at 105.

89 Ibid., at 104.

90 Fuller, supra note 33, at 193.

91 Ibid., at 191–3.

92 Segrè, supra note 64, at 210 n. 11.

93 Ibid.

94 Wright, supra note 2, at 125–6.

95 Segrè, supra note 64, at 144–7. See generally Ahmida, supra note 3. On the resistance movement in Tripolitania see A. Del Boca, Mohamed Fekini and the Fight to Free Libya (2011).

96 Ilan Pappé, The Modern Middle East (2005), 28.

97 Segrè, supra note 64, at 88.

98 Kenrick, supra note 6, at 156.

99 G.P. Callegari, I villaggi libici (1941), 32–6, quoted in Fuller, supra note 33, at 184.

100 See, for an obvious example, UN Charter, supra note 17, Preamble.

101 See E. de Vattel, Le droit des gens, ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite aux affaires des Nations et des souverains [1758] (1916), 2, para. 4; C. Bottici, Men and States: Rethinking the Domestic Analogy in a Global Age (2009); M. Koskenniemi, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument (2006), 71–157.

102 For the classic exposition see, e.g., SS Lotus Case (France v. Turkey), PCIJ Rep. Series A No 10, at 18.

103 Mussolini, B., ‘The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism’, (1935) 16 International Conciliation 5Google Scholar, at 13–14.

104 Ibid., at 21–2.

105 B. Mussolini, Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions (1935), 7.

106 Mussolini, supra note 103, at 10–11, 21–2.

107 U. Spirito, ‘Corporativismo as Absolute Liberalism and Absolute Socialism’, (1932) in Schnapp et al., supra note 46, 154 at 163.

108 Ibid., at 154.

109 1919 Covenant of the League of Nations, 27 LNTS 350, Art. 10. However, see R. Parfitt, The Process of International Legal Reproduction: Inequality, Historiography, Resistance (2018).

110 B. Mussolini, speech, (1 November 1936), quoted in MacCartney and Cremona, supra note 5, at 247.

111 B. Mussolini, Sunday Dispatch, 31 December 1933, quoted in MacCartney and Cremona, ibid., at 245.

112 1939 Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy, Berlin, 22 May 1939 (‘Pact of Steel’).

113 1940 Three-Power Pact between Germany, Italy, and Japan, Berlin, 27 September 1940 (‘Tripartite Pact’).

114 Pact of Steel, supra note 112, Preamble.

115 Tripartite Pact, supra note 113, Arts. 1 and 2.

116 Quoted in Lenin, V.I., ‘Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism’, in Christman, H.M. (ed.), Essential Works of Lenin: “What Is to Be Done?” and Other Writings (1987), 229Google Scholar.

117 See generally S. Pedersen, The Guardians: The League of Nations and the Crisis of Europe (2015).

118 See Berman, N., ‘Beyond Colonialism and Nationalism? Ethiopia, Czechoslovakia, and “Peaceful Change”’, (1996) 65 Nordic Journal of International Law 421CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

119 See, e.g., D. Woodley, Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on fascist Ideology (2010), 187–210.

120 See supra note 18.

121 See generally D. Deese (ed.), Handbook of the International Political Economy of Trade (2014).

122 See, e.g., ‘Donald Trump Says He Won't Back Down on Plan to Impose Steel, Aluminium Tariffs despite Republican protests’, ABC News, 6 March 2018.

123 See, e.g., Reference re Secession of Quebec, [1998] 2 SCR 217, para. 138.

124 UN Charter, supra note 17, Art. 4(1).

125 See generally Eslava, supra note 25.

126 1933 Montevideo Convention of the Rights and Duties of States, Art. 1.

127 See, e.g., ibid., Montevideo Convention, Art. 3; and for a detailed doctrinal analysis, J. Crawford, The Creation of States in International Law (2004).

128 Berman, N., ‘In the Wake of Empire’, (1999) 14 American University International Law Review 1521Google Scholar.

129 Res. 1973, supra note 8, Preamble. See also, e.g., Montevideo Convention, supra note 127, Arts. 3–5; UN Charter, supra note 17, Arts. 1(2), 2(1).

130 See Parfitt, R.S., ‘The Anti-Neutral Suit: International Legal Futurists, 1914-2017’, (2017) 5 London Review of International Law 87CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

131 UN Charter, supra note 17, Art. 1(2).

132 Amirul-Mu'minin Abu Bakr al-Husayni al-Qurashi al-Baghdadi, ‘A Message to the Mujahidin and the Muslim Ummah in the Month of Ramadan’, Al Hayat Media Centre, 1 July 2014, reprinted in ‘Islamic State Leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi Encourages Emigration, Worldwide Action’, SITE Intelligence Group, 1 July 2014, available at news.siteintelgroup.com/Jihadist-News/islamic-state-leader-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi-encourages-emigration-worldwide-action.html (accessed 30 May 2018).

133 The operating contracts for the Ra's Lanuf and neighbouring Es Sider facilities are held by Libya's state-run National Oil Corporation (NOC) in partnership with a host of multinationals including Trasta Energy, based in the United Arab Emirates; the French company Total; Norway's Saga Petroleum; and a US consortium consisting of Marathon Oil, Hess and ConocoPhilips (V. Walt ‘Big Oil Companies in the Cross Fire as Libyan Violence Erupts’, Fortune, 5 March 2015; ‘Company Profile, Mabruk Oil Operations’, available at www.mabrukoil.com/?page_id=4 (accessed 22 April 2018)). Its storage tanks were built by the Swiss firm Vitol (Vitol, ‘NOC and Vitol to Build Storage Tanks in Libya’, Vitol, 11 June 2008, available at www.vitol.com/noc-and-vitol-to-build-storage-tanks-in-libya/ (accessed 22 April 2018).

134 Senior State Department official, speaking at a press briefing in advance of US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's visit to Libya, E. Labott, ‘Clinton makes Unannounced Visit to Libya’, CNN.com, 18 October 2011, available at www.cnn.com/2011/10/18/world/africa/libya-clinton/index.html (accessed 9 May 2018).

135 See A. Hanieh, Lineages of Revolt: Issue of Contemporary Capitalism in the Middle East (2013); e.g., A. Hanieh, ‘Egypt's “Orderly Transition”? International Aid and the Rush to Structural Adjustment’, Jadaliyya, 29 May 2011, available at www.jadaliyya.com/Details/24041/Egypt%60s-‘Orderly-Transition’-International-Aid-and-the-Rush-to-Structural-Adjustment (accessed 22 April 2018).

136 H. Clinton, Address to the UN Human Rights Council, 3 March 2011.

137 Bazi, M., ‘What did Qaddafi's Green Book Really Say?’, New York Times, 27 May 2011Google Scholar.

138 Clinton, supra note 136.

139 See, e.g., International Monetary Fund, Libya: Staff Report for the 2013 Article IV Consultation (2 May 2013) 1.

140 Clinton, supra note 136.

141 See the statistics regularly updated on the UNHCR's ‘Mediterranean Situation’ page, available at data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/mediterranean (accessed 22 April 2018).

142 See, e.g., Dearden, L., ‘UK Accused of Trapping Refugees in Warzone After Boris Johnson Vows to Stop “Illegal Migrants” Crossing Med’, The Independent, 23 August 2017Google Scholar; I. Mann, Humanity at Sea: Maritime Migration and the Foundations of International Law (2016).

143 M. Micallef, ‘Exclusive: Interpol Issues ISIS Alert on Mediterranean’, Migrant Report, 3 July 2015.

144 Pascoli, supra note 70, at 11.

145 Res. 1973, supra note 8, Preamble.

146 See, e.g., Finchelstein, F. and Bosoder, F., ‘Is Fascism Returning to Europe?’ The New York Times, 13 December 2015Google Scholar.

147 Clinton, supra note 136.

148 Engel, A., ‘Libya as a Failed State: Causes, Consequences, Options’, (2014) 24 Washington Institute Research NotesGoogle Scholar, available at www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/libya-as-a-failed-state-causes-consequences-options (accessed 22 April 2018).

149 Clinton, supra note 136.

150 Joint Statement on Libya by the Governments of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States, Washington DC, 30 June 2015, available at ge.usembassy.gov/joint-statement-on-libya-by-the-governments-of-france-germany-italy-spain-the-united-kingdom-and-the-united-states-june-30/ (accessed 22 April 2018).

151 ‘Paris meeting on Libya fails to make progress; Libyans not invited’, Libya Herald, 3 October 2016.