Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T16:57:20.778Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Provision of Public Goods under Islamic Law: Origins, Impact, and Limitations of the Waqf System

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2024

Timur Kuran
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The Islamic waqf appears to have emerged as a credible commitment device to give property owners economic security in return for social services. Throughout the Middle East, it long served as a major instrument for delivering public goods in a decentralized manner. In principle, the manager of a waqf had to obey the stipulations of its founder to the letter. In practice, the founder's directives were often circumvented. An unintended consequence was an erosion of the waqf system's legitimacy. In any case, legally questionable adaptations proved no substitute for the legitimate options available to corporations. As it became increasingly clear that the waqf system lacked the flexibility necessary for efficient resource utilization, governments found it ever easier to confiscate their resources. In the 19th century, the founding of European-inspired municipalities marked a formal repudiation of the waqf system in favor of government-coordinated systems for delivering public goods.

Type
Papers of General Interest
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 35 , Issue 4 , 2001 , pp. 841 - 897
Copyright
Copyright © 2001 Law and Society Association.

Footnotes

For useful suggestions, I am indebted to Tyler Cowen, Murat Çizakça, Paul David, Avner Greif, Bruce Johnsen, Eric Jones, Daniel Klerman, David Powers, Joseph Sanders, Cass Sunstein, Gavin Wright, and two anonymous readers of this Review. I am grateful also to Hania Abou al-Shamat and Sung Han Tak, each of whom provided excellent research assistance.

References

Abdel-Rahim, Muddathir (1980) “Legal Institutions,” in Serjeant, R. B., ed., The Islamic City. Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Afifi, Mohammed (1994) “Les waafs Coptes au XIXe Siècle,” in Bilici, F., ed., Le Waqf dans le Monde Musulman Contemporain (XIXe–XXe Siècles). Istanbul, Turkey: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes.Google Scholar
Akdağ, Mustafa (1979) Türkiye'nin $IDktisadî ve $IDçtimaî Tarihi, Vol. 2. Istanbul, Turkey: Tekin Yayınevi.Google Scholar
Akgündüz, Ahmet (1996) $IDslam Hukukunda ve Osmanlı Tatbikatında Vakıf Müessesesi. 2nd Ed. Istanbul, Turkey: OSAV.Google Scholar
Arjomand, Said Amir (1998) “Philanthropy, the Law, and Public Policy in the Islamic World before the Modern Era,” in Ilchman, W. F., Katz, S. N. & Queen, E. L. II, eds., Philanthropy in the World's Traditions. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Arndt, H. W. (1987) Economic Development: The History of an Idea. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baer, Gabriel (1968a) “The Beginnings of Municipal Government,” in his Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Baer, Gabriel (1968b) “Waqf Reform,”in his Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Baer, Gabriel (1997) “The Waqf as a Prop for the Social System (16th–20th Centuries),” 4 Islamic Law & Society 264–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banfield, Edward C. (1958) The Moral Basis of a Backward Society. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.Google Scholar
Barkan, Örner L. (1939) “Les Problèmes Fonciers dans l'Empire Ottoman au Temps de sa Fondation,” 1 Annales d'Histoire Sociale 233–37.Google Scholar
Barkan, Örner Lütfi, & Ayverdi, Ekrem Hakkı (1970) $IDstanbul Vakıfları Tahrîr Defteri, 953 (1546) Târîhli. Istanbul, Turkey: Fetih Cemiyeti.Google Scholar
Barnes, John Robert (1987) An Introduction to Religious Foundations in the Ottoman Empire. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1994) Egypt's Adjustment to Ottoman Rule: Institutions, Waqf, and Architecture of Cairo (16th and 17th Centuries). Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beito, David T. (2002) “The Private Places of St. Louis,” in Beito, D. T., Gordon, P. & Tabarrok, A., eds., The Voluntary City. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Beito, David T., Gordon, Peter & Tabarrok, Alex (2002) The Voluntary City. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Berman, Harold J. (1983) Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Braudel, Fernand ([1967] 1973) Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800. Trans. by Miriam Kochan. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Bulliett, Richard W. (1979) Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cattan, Henry (1955) “The Law of Waqf,” in Khadduri, M. & Liebesny, H. J., eds., Law in the Middle East. Washington, DC: Middle East Institute.Google Scholar
Cem, $ISsmail (1970) Türkiye'de Geri Kalmışhğın Tarihi. Istanbul, Turkey: Cem Yayınevi.Google Scholar
Chapra, M. Umer (1992) Islam and the Economic Challenge. Leicester, UK: Islamic Foundation.Google Scholar
Cleveland, William L. (1978) “The Municipal Council of Tunis, 1858–1870: A Study in Urban Institutional Change,” 9 International J. of Middle East Studies 33–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coase, Ronald H. (1960) “The Problem of Social Cost,” 3 J. of Law & Economics 1–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coase, Ronald H. (1974) “The Lighthouse in Economics,” 17 J. of Law & Economics 357–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, Juan R. I. (2000) “Al-Tahtawi on Poverty and Welfare.” Presented at the Conference on Poverty and Charity in the Middle East, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, May.Google Scholar
Coleman, James S. (1990) Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Cooter, Robert D. (1997) “The Rule of State Law and the Rule-of-Law State: Economic Analysis of the Legal Foundations of Development,” in Bruno, M. & Pleskovic, B., eds., Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics, 1996. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Cornes, Richard & Sandler, Todd (1996) The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods, and Club Goods. 2nd Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coulson, N.J. (1971) Succession in the Muslim Family. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crecelius, Daniel (1986) “Incidences of Waqf Cases in Three Cairo Courts: 1640–1802,” 29 J. of the Economic & Social History of the Orient 176–89.Google Scholar
Crecelius, Daniel (1991) “The Waqf of Muhammad Bey Abu Al-Dhahab in Historical Perspective,” 23 International J. of Middle East Studies 57–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Çadırcı, Musa (1991) Tanzimat Döneminde Anadolu Kentlerinin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Yapıları. Ankara, Turkey: Türk Tarih Kurumu.Google Scholar
Çağatay, Neşet (1971) “Osmanlı $IDmparatorluğunda Riba-Faiz Konusu ve Bankacılık,” 9 Vakıfjar Dergisi 31–56.Google Scholar
Çizakça, Murat (1995) “Cash Waqfs of Bursa, 1555–1823,” 38 J. of the Social & Economic History of the Orient 323–37.Google Scholar
Çizakça, Murat (1996) A Comparative Evolution of Business Partnerships: The Islamic World and Europe, with Special Reference to the Ottoman Archives. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Çizakça, Murat (2000) A History of Philanthropic Foundations: The Islamic World from the Seventh Century to the Present. Istanbul, Turkey: Boğaziçi Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Darling, Linda (1996) Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire, 1560–1660. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davison, Roderic H. ([1963] 1973) Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876. New York: Gordian Press.Google Scholar
Deguilhem-Schoem, Randi Carolyn (1986) “History of Waqf and Case Studies from Damascus in Late Ottoman and French Mandatory Times,” Ph.D. diss., History Department, Columbia University, New York, June.Google Scholar
Delcroix, M. M. (1922) “L'Institution Municipale en Égypte,” 65 Égypte Contemporaine 278–323.Google Scholar
Doumani, Beshara (1998) “Endowing Family: Waqf, Property Devolution, and Gender in Greater Syria, 1800 to 1860,” 40 Comparative Studies in Society & History 3–41.Google Scholar
Elon, Menachem (1971) “Hekdesh,” Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 8, pp. 279–87. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Ener, Mine (2000) “The Charity of the Khedive.” Presented at the Conference on Poverty and Charity in the Middle East, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, May.Google Scholar
Ergin, Osman (1936) Türkiyede Şehirciliğin Tarihî $IDnkişafı. Istanbul, Turkey: $IDstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faroqhi, Suraiya (1994) Pilgrims and Sultans: The Hajj under the Ottomans, 1517–1683. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Fay, Mary Ann (1997) “Women and Waqf: Toward a Reconsideration of Women's Place in the Mamluk Household,” 29 International J. of Middle East Studies 33–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, Carter V. (1980) Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Fratcher, William F. (1973) “Trust,” International Encyclopaedia of Comparative Law, Vol. 4 pp. 1–120. Tübingen, Germany: J.C.B. Mohr.Google Scholar
Fukuyama, Francis (1995) Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Fyzee, Asaf A. A. (1964) Outlines of Muhammadan Law, 3rd Ed. London: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Gambetta, Diego (1988) Trust: The Making and Breaking of Cooperative Relations. New York: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Gaudiosi, Monica M. (1988) “The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College,” 136 Univ. of Pennsylvania Law Rev. 1231–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gedikli, Fethi (1998) Osmanlı Şirket Kültürü: XVI–XVII. Yüzyıllarda Mudârebe Uygulaması. Istanbul, Turkey: $IDz Yayıncılık.Google Scholar
Gellner, Ernest (1994) Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Gerber, Haim (1988) Economy and Society in an Ottoman City: Bursa, 1600–1700. Jerusalem: Hebrew Univ.Google Scholar
Gerber, Haim (1994) State, Society, and Law in Islam. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.Google Scholar
Gerber, Haim (1999) Islamic Law and Culture, 1600–1840. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
Gibb, H. A. R., & Bowen, Harold (1950) Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of Western Civilization on Moslem Culture in the Near East, vol. 1, 2 parts. London: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Gibb, H. A. R., & Kramers, J. H., eds. (1961) “Wakf,” in Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, pp. 624–28. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Gil, Moshe (1998) “The Earliest Waqf Foundations,” 57 J. of Near Eastern Studies 125–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goitein, S. D. (1999) A Mediterranean Society: An Abridgment in One Volume. Rev. & ed. by Jacob Lassner. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.Google Scholar
Haneef, Mohamed Aslam (1995) Contemporary Islamic Economic Thought: A Selected Comparative Analysis. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Ikraq.Google Scholar
Harris, Ron (2000) Industrializing English Law: Entrepreneurship and Business Organization, 1720–1844. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatemî, Hüseyin Perviz (1969) Önceki ve Bugünkü Turk Hukukunda Vakıf Kurma Muamelesi. Istanbul, Turkey: $IDstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi.Google Scholar
Heffening, W. (1936) “Wakf,” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed., vol. 7, pp. 1096–103. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
Hennigan, Peter Charles (1999) “The Birth of a Legal Institution: The Formation of the Waqf in Third Century A. H. Hanafi Legal Discourse,” Ph.D. diss., History, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, May.Google Scholar
Hill, R. L. (1960) “Baladiyya, Arab East,” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., vol. 1, pp. 975–76. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (1974) The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, Vol. 2. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoexter, Miriam (1998) Endowments, Rulers, and Community: Waqf al-Haramayn in Ottoman Algiers. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huart, Claude (1927) “Imāret,” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed., vol. 2, p. 475. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, Mahmood (1990) Merchant Capital and Islam. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
$IDnalcık, Halil (1955) “Mehmed II,” $IDslâm Ansiklopedisi, Vol. 7. Istanbul, Turkey: Maarif Basımevi.Google Scholar
$IDnalcık, Halil (1994) “The Ottoman State: Economy and Society, 1300–1600,” in $IDnalcık, H. & Quataert, D., eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Jardine, Lisa (1996) Worldly Goods: A New History of the Renaissance. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Jennings, Ronald C. (1990) “Pious Foundations in the Society and Economy of Ottoman Trabzon, 1565–1640,” 33 J. of the Economic & Social History of the Orient 271–336.Google Scholar
Jones, E. L. (1987) The European Miracle: Environments, Economies, and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia, 2nd Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Jones, William R. (1980) “Pious Endowments in Medieval Christianity and Islam,” 109 Diogenes 23–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kark, Ruth (1980) “The Jerusalem Municipality at the End of Ottoman Rule,” 14 Asian & African Studies 117–41.Google Scholar
Klein, Daniel B. (1990) “The Voluntary Provision of Public Goods? The Turnpike Companies of Early America,” 28 Economic Inquiry 788–812.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koçi Bey, Göriceli ([1630] 1994) Koçi Bey Risalesi. Ankara, Turkey: Ecdâd.Google Scholar
Kozak, Erol, (1985) Bir Sosyal Siyaset Müessesesi Olarak Vakıf. Istanbul, Turkey: Akabe.Google Scholar
Köprülü, Fuad (1942) “Vakıf Müessesesinin Hukukî Mahiyeti ve Tarihî Tekâmülü,” 11 Vakıflar Dergisi 1–35.Google Scholar
Kunt, Metin (1983) The Sultan's Servants: The Transformation of Ottoman Provincial Government, 1550–1650. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timur (1995) Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timur (1997) “Islam and Underdevelopment: An Old Puzzle Revisited,” 153 J. of Institutional & Theoretical Economics 41–71.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timur (2000a) “Islamic Redistribution through Zakat: Historical Record and Modern Realities.” Presented at the Conference on Poverty and Charity in the Middle East, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, May.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timur (2000b) “Opportunistic Taxation in Middle Eastern History: Islamic Influences on the Evolution of Private Property Rights,” unpublished paper, Department of Economics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, July.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timur (2001) “The Islamic Commercial Crisis: Institutional Roots of Economic Underdevelopment in the Middle East,” unpublished paper, Department of Economics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, November.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurt, $IDsmail (1996) Para Vakıfları: Nazariyat ve Tatbikat. Istanbul, Turkey: Ensar Neşriyat.Google Scholar
Lambton, Ann K. S. (1981) State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Political Theory. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Lambton, Ann K. S. (1997) “Awkāf in Persia: 6th–8th/12th–14th Centuries,” 4 Islamic Law & Society 298–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Bernard (1956) “1641–1642 de Bir Karayit'in Türkiye Seyahatnâmesi,” Trans. by F. Selçuk. 3 Vakıflar Dergisi 97–106.Google Scholar
Lewis, Bernard (1960) “Baladiyya, Turkey,” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., vol. 1, pp. 972–74. Leiden: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
Lewis, Bernard (1961) The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 2nd Ed. London: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, Bernard (1988) The Political Language of Islam. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, Donald P. (1984) A Catalogue of the Islamic Documents from al-Haram al-Sarif in Jerusalem. Beirut, Lebanon: Orient-Institute.Google Scholar
Løkkegaard, Frede (1950) Islamic Taxation in the Classic Period. Copenhagen: Branner & Korch.Google Scholar
Lowenthal, David (1996) Possessed by the Past: The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Makdisi, George (1981) The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Mandaville, Jon E. (1979) “Usurious Piety: The Cash Waqf Controversy in the Ottoman Empire,” 10 International J. of Middle East Studies 289–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marcus, Abraham (1989) The Middle East on the Eve of Modernity: Aleppo in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Mardin, Şerif (1969) “Power, Civil Society, and Culture in the Ottoman Empire,” 11 Comparative Studies in Society & History 258–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masters, Bruce (1988) The Origins of Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo, 1600–1750. New York: New York Univ. Press.Google Scholar
McChesney, Fred S. (1986) “Government Prohibitions on Volunteer Fire Fighting in Nineteenth-Century America: A Property Rights Perspective,” 15 J. of Legal Studies 69–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meriwether, Margaret L. (1999) The Kin Who Count: Family and Society in Ottoman Aleppo, 1770–1840. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Michon, Jean-Louis (1980) “Religious Institutions,” in Serjeant, R. B., ed., The Islamic City. Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Mirrlees, James A. (1976) “The Optimal Structure of Incentives and Authority within an Organization,” 7 Bell J. of Economics 105–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mokyr, Joel (1990) The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Mumcu, Ahmet (1985) Tarih $IDçindeki Genel Gelişimiyle Birlikte Osmanlı Devletinde Rüşvet (Özellikle Adlî Rüşvet). Istanbul, Turkey: $IDnkilâp Kitabevi.Google Scholar
Mundy, Martha (1988) “The Family, Inheritance, and Islam: A Re-examination of the Sociology of Farā'id Law,” in al-Azmeh, Aziz, ed., Islamic Law: Social and Historical Contexts. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
North, Douglass C. (1995) “The Paradox of the West,” in Davis, R. W., ed., The Origins of Modern Freedom in the West. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
North, Douglass C., & Weingast, Barry R. (1989) “Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England,” 49 J. of Economic History 803–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, Mancur (1993) “Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development,” 87 American Political Science Rev. 567–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortaylı, $IDlber (1985) Tanzimattan Cumhuriyete Yerel Yönetim Geleneği. Istanbul, Turkey: Hil Yayın.Google Scholar
Özbek, Nadir (2000) “Imperial Gifts and Sultanic Legitimation during the Reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II, 1876–1909.” Presented at the Conference on Poverty and Charity in the Middle East, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, May.Google Scholar
Öztürk, Nazif (1994a) “Batılılaşma Döneminde Vakıflarinodot;n Çözülmesine Yol Açan Uygulamalar,” 23 Vakıflar Dergisi 298–309.Google Scholar
Öztürk, Nazif (1994b) “Merkezden Yönetimin Aşamaları: Evkâf-ı Hümayûn Nezâreti'nin Teşkili,” in Bilici, F., ed., Waqf dans le Monde Musulman Contemporain (XIXe–XXe Siècles). Istanbul, Turkey: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes.Google Scholar
Palairet, Michael (1997) The Balkan Economies c. 1800–1914. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Peri, Oded (1983) “The Waqf as an Instrument to Increase and Consolidate Political Power: The Case of Khāssekī Sultān Waqf in Late Eighteenth-Century Jerusalem,” 17 Asian & African Studies 47–62.Google Scholar
Peri, Oded (1992) “Waqf and Ottoman Welfare Policy: The Poor Kitchen of Hasseki Sultan in Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Jerusalem,” 35 J. of the Economic & Social History of the Orient 167–86.Google Scholar
Pirenne, Henri (1933) Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe. San Diego: Harcourt, Brace.Google Scholar
Platteau, Jean-Philippe (2000) Institutions, Social Norms, and Economic Development. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Harwood Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Posner, Richard A. (1992) Economic Analysis of Law, 4th Ed. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Powers, David S. (1986) Studies in the Qur'an and Hadīth: The Formation of the Islamic Law of Inheritance. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.Google Scholar
Powers, David S. (1993) “The Maliki Family Endowment: Legal Norms and Social Practices,” 25 International J. of Middle East Studies 379–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powers, David S. (1999) “The Islamic Family Endowment (Waqf),” 32 Vanderbilt J. of Transnational Law 1167–90.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. (1993) Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Rafeq, Abdul-Karim (1970) The Province of Damascus. Beirut, Lebanon: Khayats.Google Scholar
Repp, Richard C. (1988) “Qānūn and Sharī'a in the Ottoman Context,” in Al-Azmeh, A., ed., Islamic Law: Social and Historical Contexts. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rosen, Lawrence (2000) The Justice of Islam. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, Steven (1980) “Foreigners and Municipal Reform in Istanbul: 1855–1865,” 11 International J. of Middle East Studies 227–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowley Charles, K., Tollison, Robert D. & Tullock, Gordon, eds. (1988) The Political Economy of Rent Seeking. Boston: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, Paul H. (2001) “The State of Nature and the Evolution of Political Preferences,” 3 American Law & Economics Rev. 50–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saarisalo, Aapeli (1933) A Waqf Document from Sinai. Helsinki, Finland: Societas Orientalis Fennica.Google Scholar
Samaran, Ch. (1960) “Baladiyya, North Africa, Tunisia,” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., vol. 1, p. 977. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
Schoenblum, Jeffrey A. (1999) “The Role of Legal Doctrine in the Decline of the Islamic Waqf: A Comparison with the Trust,” 32 Vanderbilt J. of Transnational Law 1191–227.Google Scholar
Scott, James C. (1998) Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Shaham, Ron (1991) “Christian and Jewish Waqf in Palestine during the Late Ottoman Period,” 54 Bulletin of the School of Oriental & African Studies 460–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaham, Ron (2000) “Masters, Their Freed Slaves, and the Waqf in Egypt (18th–20th Centuries),” 43 J. of the Economic & Social History of the Orient 162–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shleifer, Andrei, & Vishny, Robert W. (1998) The Grabbing Hand: Government Pathologies and Their Cures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Shmuelevitz, Aryeh (1984) The Jews of the Ottoman Empire in the Late Fifteenth and the Sixteenth Centuries: Administrative, Economic, Legal and Social Relations as Reflected in the Responsa. Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spence, Michael A. (1974) Market Signaling: Informational Transfer in Hiring and Related Screening Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Stern, S. M. (1970) “The Constitution of the Islamic City,” in Hourani, A. H. & Stern, S. M., eds., The Islamic City. Oxford: Bruno Cassirer.Google Scholar
Stillman, Norman A. (1975) “Charity and Social Service in Medieval Islam,” 5 Societas 105–15.Google Scholar
Thomas, Thomas Ann Van (1949) “Note on the Origin of Uses and Trusts—Waqfs,” 3 Southwestern Law J. 162–66.Google Scholar
Tierney, Brian (1982) Religion, Law, and the Growth of Constitutional Thought, 1150–1650. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles (1992) Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1990. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Tocqueville, Alexis de ([1835] 1989) Democracy in America. trans. Reeve by Henry, 2 vol. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Toprak, Zafer (1995) Milli $IDktisat—Milli Burjuvazi. Istanbul, Turkey: Tarih Vakfı.Google Scholar
International, Transparency (2000) “The Corruption Perceptions Index 2000,” http://www.gwdg.de/~uwvw/2000Data.html.Google Scholar
Van Zandt, David E. (1993) “The Lessons of the Lighthouse: 'Government' or ‘Private’ Provision of Goods,” 22 J. of Legal Studies 47–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakin, Jeannette A. (1972) The Function of Documents in Islamic Law. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.Google Scholar
Weber, Max ([1917–24] 1968) Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, Vol. 2. Roth, G. & Wittich, C., eds., Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.Google Scholar
Wehr, Hans (1980) A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. J. M. Cowan, ed., Beirut, Lebanon: Librairie du Liban.Google Scholar
Williamson, Oliver E. (1985) The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Yediyıldız, Bahaeddin (1982a) “Vakıf,” $IDslâm Ansiklopedisi, Vol. 13, pp. 153–72. Istanbul, Turkey: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanhğı.Google Scholar
Yediyıldız, Bahaeddin (1982b) “Müessese-Toplum Münâsebetleri Çerçevesinde XVIII. Asır Türk Toplumu ve Vakıf Müessesesi,” 15 Vakıflar Dergisi 23–53.Google Scholar
Yediyıldız, Bahaeddin (1982c) “Türk Vakıf Kurucularının Sosyal Tabakalaşmada Yeri, 1700–1800,” 3 J. of Ottoman Studies 143–64.Google Scholar
Yediyıldız, Bahaeddin (1984) “XVII. Asır Türk Vakıflarının $IDktisadî Boyutu,” 18 Vakıflar Dergisi 5–42.Google Scholar
Yediyıldız, Bahaeddin (1990) Institution du Vaqf au XVIIIe Siècle en Turquie: Étude Socio-Historique. Ankara, Turkey: Éditions Ministère de la Culture.Google Scholar
Yerasimos, Stéphane (1994) “Les Waqfs dans l'Aménagement Urbain d'Istanbul au XIXe Siècle,” in Bilici, F., ed., Waqf dans le Monde Musulman Contemporain (XIXe–XXe Siècles). Istanbul, Turkey: Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes.Google Scholar
Zilfi, Madeleine C. (1988) The Politics of Piety: The Ottoman Ulema in the Postclassical Age (1600–1800). Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica.Google Scholar