Hostname: page-component-669899f699-ggqkh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-03T08:14:42.369Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Preparing to Be Colonized: Land Tenure and Legal Strategy in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

Stuart Banner
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, throughout the Pacific Rim, European and American colonizers reorganized indigenous systems of property rights in land to make them look more like European property systems, with disastrous effects for the indigenous people involved. The very first of these schemes, however, was the Māhele of 1845–1855, which took place not in a colony but in the independent Kingdom of Hawaii. Why did the Hawaiians do this to themselves? I argue that the Māhele was a sophisticated and partially successful response to the prospect that Hawaii would soon be colonized. The object of the Māhele was to ensure that in the event of annexation, Kamehameha III and other elite Hawaiians would not be dispossessed of their landholdings. The strategy was to convert those landholdings into a legal form that would be recognized by an incoming colonial government—whether American, British, or French—as private property.

Type
Articles of General Interest
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 39 , Issue 2 , June 2005 , pp. 273 - 314
Copyright
© 2005 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

For help with the research for this article, thanks to the staffs at the Hawaii State Archives, the Hawaiian Historical Society, the Department of Special Collections at UCLA's Young Research Library, and the UCLA Law Library. For advice on earlier drafts, thanks to Russell Korobkin, Bert Kritzer, Carol Rose, Clyde Spillenger, Steve Yeazell, and the six anonymous reviewers.

References

References

Anderson, Rufus. (1870) History of the Sandwich Islands Mission. Boston: Congregational Publishing Society.Google Scholar
Anon. (1817) Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of Samuel Patterson. Palmer, MA: From the Press in Palmer.Google Scholar
Anon. (1826) Voyage of H.M.S. Blonde to the Sandwich Islands, in the Years 1824–1825. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Anon. (1844) Correspondence Relative to the Sandwich Islands. London.Google Scholar
Anon. (1845) Report of the Minister of the Interior. Honolulu: Polynesian Press.Google Scholar
Anon. (1846) Statute Laws of His Majesty Kamehameha III. Honolulu: Charles E. Hitchcock.Google Scholar
Anon. (1848) Answers to Questions Proposed by His Excellency, R.C. Wyllie, His Hawaiian Majesty's Minister of Foreign Relations. Honolulu.Google Scholar
Aquinas, Thomas (1964) Summa Theologica, Vol. 37. Cambridge: Blackfriars.Google Scholar
Banner, Stuart (2000a) “Conquest by Contract: Wealth Transfer and Land Market Structure in Colonial New Zealand,” 34 Law & Society Rev. 47–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banner, Stuart (2000b) Legal Systems in Conflict: Property and Sovereignty in Missouri, 1750–1860. Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Banner, Stuart (2002) “Transitions Between Property Regimes,” 31 J. of Legal Studies S359–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banner, Stuart (2005) “Why Terra Nullius? Anthropology and Property Law in Early Australia,” 23 Law and History Rev. 95–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrot, Théodore-Adolphe (1978) Unless Haste Is Made: A French Skeptic's Account of the Sandwich Islands in 1836, trans. Daniel Dole. Kailua: Press Pacifica.Google Scholar
Beaglehole, J. C., ed. (196168) The Journals of Captain Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Bingham, Hiram (1849) A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sandwich Islands, 3rd ed. Hartford, CT: Hezekiah Huntington.Google Scholar
Bishop, Artemas (1838) “An Inquiry Into the Causes of Decrease in the Population of the Sandwich Islands,” 1 Hawaiian Spectator 52–66.Google Scholar
Blackstone, William (1783) Commentaries on the Laws of England, 9th ed, Vol. 2. London: W. Strahan et al.Google Scholar
Board of Commissioners (1847) Principles Adopted by the Board of Commissioners to Quiet Land Titles. Honolulu: Charles E. Hitchcock.Google Scholar
Board of Commissioners (1856) “Final Report of the Board of Commissioners to Quiet Land Titles,” in Report of the Minister of the Interior. Honolulu.Google Scholar
Bradley, Harold Whitman (1942) The American Frontier in Hawaii: The Pioneers 1789–1843. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Braund, Kathryn E. Holland (1993) Deerskins & Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685–1815. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Brown, George (1846) Letter to Robert Rantoul, Jr., 1 April, George Brown Correspondence Collection, Hawaiian Historical Society.Google Scholar
Bushnell, O. A. (1993) The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawai‘i. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Archibald (1825) A Voyage Round the World, from 1806 to 1812. Roxbury, MA: Allen & Watts.Google Scholar
Campbell, I. C. (1992) Island Kingdom: Tonga Ancient & Modern. Christchurch, New Zealand: Canterbury Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Carlson, Leonard A. (1981) Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Castle, Samuel N. (1839) An Account of the Visit of the French Frigate l'Artemise, to the Sandwich Islands, July, 1839. Honolulu.Google Scholar
Cheever, Henry T. (1856) Life in the Sandwich Islands: or, The Heart of the Pacific, As It Was and Is. New York: A.S. Barnes & Co.Google Scholar
Chinen, Jon J. (1958) The Great Mahele: Hawaii's Land Division of 1848. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chinen, Jon J. (1961) Original Land Titles in Hawaii.Google Scholar
Chinen, Jon J. (2002) They Cried for Help: The Hawaiian Land Revolution of the 1840s & 1850s. Xlibris.Google Scholar
Comaroff, John L. (2001) “Colonialism, Culture, and the Law: A Foreword,” 26 Law & Social Inquiry 305–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1880) Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1880. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Cordy, Ross H. (1972) “The Effects of European Contact on Hawaiian Agricultural Systems – 1778–1819,” 19 Ethnohistory 393–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, H. G. (1977) “Tongan Society at the Time of European Contact,” in Rutherford, N., ed., Friendly Islands: A History of Tonga. Melbourne: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Damon, Ethel M. (1927) Father Bond of Kohala: A Chronicle of Pioneer Life in Hawaii. Honolulu: The Friend.Google Scholar
Dampier, Robert (1971) To the Sandwich Islands on H.M.S. Blonde, Ed. Joerger, Pauline King. Honolulu: Univ. Press of Hawaii.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daws, Gavan (1968) Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Daws, Gavan (1969) “Government and Land in Honolulu to 1850,” in Greer, R. A., ed., Hawaiian Historical Review: Selected Readings. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society.Google Scholar
De Varigny, Charles (1981) Fourteen Years in the Sandwich Islands 1855–1868. Honolulu: Univ. Press of Hawaii. (Orig. pub. 1874.)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dole, Sanford B. (1892) Evolution of Hawaiian Land Tenures. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society.Google Scholar
Duhaut-Cilly, Auguste (1997) A Voyage to California, the Sandwich Islands, & Around the World in the Years 1826–1829, trans. and ed. August Frugé & Neal Harlow. San Francisco: Book Club of California. (Orig. pub. 1834–35).Google Scholar
Ellickson, Robert C. (1993) “Property in Land,” 102 Yale Law J. 1315–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, William (1825) A Journal of a Tour Around Hawaii, the Largest of the Sandwich Islands. Boston: Crocker & Brewster.Google Scholar
Ellis, William (1826) Narrative of a Tour Through Hawaii. London: H. Fisher & P. Jackson.Google Scholar
Eveleth, Ephraim (1839) History of the Sandwich Islands: With an Account of the American Mission Established There in 1820, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union.Google Scholar
France, Peter (1969) The Charter of the Land: Custom and Colonization in Fiji. Melbourne: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
French, William (1831) Letter to “His Majesty Kaukioli,” 7 April, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 3, file 36, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Gates, Merrill Edwards (1885) Land and Law as Agents in Educating the Indians.Google Scholar
Gilman, Gorham D. (1970) “1848 – Honolulu As It Is – Notes for Amplification,” ed. Sharpless, J. S. & Greer, R. A., 4 Hawaiian J. of History 105–56.Google Scholar
Gilson, R. P. (1970) Samoa 1830 to 1900: The Politics of a Multi-Cultural Community. Melbourne: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Greenwald, Emily (2002) Reconfiguring the Reservation: The Nez Perces, Jicarilla Apaches, and the Dawes Act. Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
Greer, Richard A. (1996) “Notes on Early Land Titles in Hawai‘i,” 30 Hawaiian J. of History 29–52.Google Scholar
Hill, S. S. (1856) Travels in the Sandwich and Society Islands. London: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Hobbs, Jean (1932) “The Land Title in Hawaii,” in Fortieth Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society for the Year 1931. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society.Google Scholar
Hobbs, Jean (1935) Hawaii: A Pageant of the Soil. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Holt, John Dominis, ed. (1979) The Hawaiian Journal of John B. Whitman 1813–1815: An Account of the Sandwich Islands. Honolulu: Topgallant Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Manley (1869) Hawaii: The Past, Present, and Future of Its Island-Kingdom, 2nd ed. New York: D. Appleton and Co.Google Scholar
Hoxie, Frederick (1989) A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Hunt, T. Dwight (1853) The Past and Present of the Sandwich Islands. San Francisco: Whitton, Towne & Co.Google Scholar
Ingraham, Joseph (1918) The Log of the Brig Hope. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society. (Orig. written 1791.)Google Scholar
Jarves, James Jackson (1843) History of the Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands. London: Edward Moxon.Google Scholar
Journal of the Legislature (184150) minutes, series 221, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Judd, Gerrit P. (1844a) Letter to William Miller, 2 April, Foreign Office Letterbooks, series 410, vol. 1-T, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Judd, Gerrit P. (1844b) Memorandum, 7 September, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 11, folder 269, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Judd, Gerrit P. (1847) Memorandum, 11 December, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 21, folder 453, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Judd, Laura Fish (1928) Honolulu: Sketches of the Life. Honolulu: Honolulu Star-Bulletin. (Orig. written 1828–61.)Google Scholar
Kamakau, Samuel M. (1961) Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press.Google Scholar
Kamakau, Samuel Manaiakalani (1976) The Works of the People of Old: Na Hana a ka Po‘e Kahiko, trans. Mary Kawena Pukui. Ed. Barrère, Dorothy B. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.Google Scholar
Kame‘eleihiwa, Lilikalā (1992) Native Land and Foreign Desires: Ko Hawai‘i Āina a me Nā Koi Pu‘umake a ka Po‘e Haole. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.Google Scholar
Kamehameha, III (1833) Proclamation, 14 March, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 3, file 44, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Kamehameha, III (1841) “Proclamation,” Polynesian, 19 June, p. 7.Google Scholar
Kelly, Marion (1956) “Changes in Land Tenure in Hawaii, 1778–1850,” M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii.Google Scholar
King, Pauline, ed. (1982) The Diaries of David Lawrence Gregg: An American Diplomat in Hawaii 1853–1858. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society.Google Scholar
Kuykendall, Ralph S. (193867) The Hawaiian Kingdom, Vol. 1. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
La Croix, Sumner J., & Roumasset, James (1984) “An Economic Theory of Political Change in Premissionary Hawaii,” 21 Explorations in Economic History 151–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
La Croix, Sumner J., & Roumasset, James (1990) “The Evolution of Private Property in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii,” 50 J. of Economic History 829–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lam, Maivan (1985) “The Imposition of Anglo-American Land Tenure Law on Hawaiians,” 23 J. of Legal Pluralism 103–28.Google Scholar
Lam, Maivan Clech (1989) “The Kuleana Act Revisited: The Survival of Traditional Hawaiian Commoner Rights to Land,” 64 Washington Law Rev 233–88.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1847a) Letter to Titus Coan et al., 9 December, Supreme Court Letter Book of Chief Justice William Little Lee, 1847–54, series 240, box 1, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1847b) Letter to Kamehameha III, 14 December, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 21, folder 454, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1847c) Letter to R. C. Wyllie, 14 December, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 21, folder 454, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1847d) Letter to J. S. Emerson, 23 December, Supreme Court Letter Book of Chief Justice William Little Lee, 1847–54, series 240, box 1, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1848a) Letter to J. S. Emerson, 8 January, Supreme Court Letter Book of Chief Justice William Little Lee, 1847–54, series 240, box 1, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1848b) Letter to C. B. Andrews, 12 January, Supreme Court Letter Book of Chief Justice William Little Lee, 1847–54, series 240, box 1, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1848c) Letter to J. L. Green, 19 January, Supreme Court Letter Book of Chief Justice William Little Lee, 1847–54, series 240, box 1, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1850) Letter to Joel Turrill, 29 December, in “The Turrill Collection,” Sixty-Sixth Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society for the Year 1957. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society, 1958, at 35.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1851) Letter to Joel Turrill, 1 July, in “The Turrill Collection,” Sixty-Sixth Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society for the Year 1957. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society. 1958 at 43.Google Scholar
Lee, William (1854) Letter to “Marshall,” 10 October, Supreme Court Letter Book of Chief Justice William Little Lee, 1847–54, series 240, box 1, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Levy, Neil M. (1975) “Native Hawaiian Land Rights,” 63 California Law Rev. 848–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linnekin, Jocelyn (1983) “The Hui Lands of Keanae: Hawaiian Land Tenure and the Great Mahele,” 92 J. of the Polynesian Society 169–88.Google Scholar
Linnekin, Jocelyn (1987) “Statistical Analysis of the Great Māhele: Some Preliminary Findings,” 22 J. of Pacific History 15–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Locke, John (1970) Two Treatises of Government, 3rd ed., Laslett, Peter, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. (Orig. pub. 1698.)Google Scholar
Lyons, Curtis J. (1903) “Land Matters in Hawaii,” in Report of the Surveyor to the Governor of the Territory of Hawaii for the Year Ending June 30, 1902. Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette Co.Google Scholar
Macrae, James (1972) With Lord Byron at the Sandwich Islands in 1825: Being Extracts from the MS Diary of James Macrae, Scottish Botanist. Hilo: Petroglyph Press.Google Scholar
Malo, David (1839) “On the Decrease of Population on the Hawaiian Islands,” trans. L. Andrews. Hawaiian Spectator 121–30.Google Scholar
Malo, David (1846) Letter to William Richards, 2 June, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 17, file 386, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Malo, David (1951) Hawaiian Antiquities, trans. Nathaniel B. Emerson. Honolulu: Bishop Museum. (Orig. pub. 1898.)Google Scholar
Mathison, Gilbert Farquhar (1825) Narrative of a Visit to Brazil, Chile, Peru, and the Sandwich Islands, During the Years 1821 and 1822. London: Charles Knight.Google Scholar
Matsuda, Mari J. (1988) “Law and Culture in the District Court of Honolulu, 1844–1845: A Case Study of the Rise of Legal Consciousness,” 32 American J. of Legal History 16–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonnell, Janet A. (1991) The Dispossession of the American Indian 1887–1934. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.Google Scholar
McGregor, Davianna Pōmaika‘i (1996) “An Introduction to the Hoa‘āina and Their Rights,” 30 Hawaiian J. of History 1–27.Google Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle (2000) Colonizing Hawai‘i: The Cultural Power of Law. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, Melissa L. (1994) The White Earth Tragedy: Ethnicity and Dispossession at a Minnesota Anishinaabe Reservation. Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Meyers, William H. (1955) Journal of a Cruise to California and the Sandwich Islands in the United States Sloop-of-War Cyane. San Francisco: Book Club of California. (Orig. pub. 1843).Google Scholar
Mills, Peter R. (2003) “Neo in Oceania: Foreign Vessels Owned by Hawaiian Chiefs Before 1830,” 38 J. of Pacific History 53–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newbury, Colin (1980) Tahiti Nui: Change and Survival in French Polynesia 1767–1945. Honolulu: Univ. Press of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Nordhoff, Charles (1974) Northern California, Oregon, and the Sandwich Islands. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press. (Orig. pub. 1874).Google Scholar
Olmsted, Francis Allyn (1969) Incidents of a Whaling Voyage. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Co. (Orig. pub. 1841).Google Scholar
Orange, Claudia (1987) The Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington, New Zealand: Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar
Osorio, Jonathan Kay Kamakawiwo‘ole (2002) Dismembering Lāhui: A History of the Hawaiian Nation to 1887. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Parker, Linda S. (1989) Native American Estate: The Struggle Over Indian and Hawaiian Lands. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petition (1845) 12 June, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 13, folder 316, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Privy Council Records (1846) minutes, series 421, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Privy Council Records (1847) minutes, series 421, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Privy Council Records (1849) minutes, series 421, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Henry (1987) The Law of the Land. Ringwood, Australia: Penguin.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Stephen (1842) “Stephen Reynolds Journal,” 8 August, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Roumasset, James, & La Croix, Sumner J. (1993) “The Coevolution of Property Rights and Political Order: An Illustration from Nineteenth-Century Hawaii,” in Ostrom, V. et al., eds., Rethinking Institutional Analysis and Development. San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies.Google Scholar
Rutherford, Noel (1977) “George Tupou I and Shirley Baker,” in Rutherford, N., ed., Friendly Islands: A History of Tonga. Melbourne: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Sack, Peter G. (1973) Land Between Two Laws: Early European Land Acquisitions in New Guinea. Canberra: Australian National Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Robert C. (1977) Historical Statistics of Hawaii. Honolulu: Univ. Press of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Simpson, George (1847) Narrative of a Journey Round the World, During the Years 1841 and 1842, Vol. 2. London: Henry Colburn.Google Scholar
Stannard, David E. (1989) Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai'i on the Eve of Western Contact. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Stewart, C. S. (1839) A Residence in the Sandwich Islands. 5th ed. Boston: Weeks, Jordan & Co.Google Scholar
Swindler, William F., ed. (197379) Sources and Documents of United States Constitutions. Vol. 3. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications.Google Scholar
Ten Eyck, Anthony (1847) Letter to James Buchanan, 23 November, National Archives microfilm series T30, roll 2, RG 59.Google Scholar
Ten Eyck, Anthony (1848) Letter to James Buchanan, 15 February, National Archives microfilm series T30, roll 2, RG 59.Google Scholar
Townsend, John K. (1839) Narrative of a Journey Across the Rocky Mountains, to the Columbia River, and a Visit to the Sandwich Islands, Chili, &c. Philadelphia: Henry Perkins.Google Scholar
Turnbull, John (1813) A Voyage Round the World in the Years 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803, and 1804, 2nd ed. London: A. Maxwell.Google Scholar
Twain, Mark (1938) Letters from the Sandwich Islands, ed. Ezra Dane, G. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Van Trease, Howard (1987) The Politics of Land in Vanuatu: From Colony to Independence. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies of the Univ. of the South Pacific.Google Scholar
Vancouver, George (1984) A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World 1791–1795, Ed. Kaye Lamb, W. London: Hakluyt Society. (Orig. pub. 1798).Google Scholar
Ward, Alan (1982) Land and Politics in New Caledonia. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar
Ward, Alan (1995)[1974] A Show of Justice: Racial “Amalgamation” in Nineteenth Century New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Washburn, Wilcomb E., ed. (1973) The American Indian and the United States: A Documentary History, Vol. 1. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Wilkes, Charles (1845) Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, Vol. 4. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, Hugh (1883) Sunny Lands and Seas. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Williams, David V. (1999) “Te Kooti Tango Whenua” : The Native Land Court 1864–1909. Wellington, New Zealand: Huia Publishers.Google Scholar
Wise, Henry Augustus (1849) Los Gringos: or, An Inside View of Mexico and California, with Wanderings in Peru, Chili, and Polynesia. New York: Baker and Scribner.Google Scholar
Wyllie, Robert C. (1847) Letter to Kamehameha III, 1 December, F.O. & Ex., series 402, box 21, folder 452, Hawaii State Archives.Google Scholar
Wyllie, Robert C. (1849) (not published until 1855) Letter to Gerrit P. Judd, 19 March, in Wyllie, R. C., Report of the Secretary of War, to the Legislature of 1855. Honolulu.Google Scholar

Cases Cited

In re Estate of His Majesty Kamehameha IV, 2 Haw. 715 (1864).Google Scholar
Johnson v. M'Intosh, 21 U.S. 543 (1823).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kekiekie v. Dennis, 1 Haw. 42 (1851).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liliuokalani v. United States, 45 Ct. Cl. 418 (1910).Google Scholar
Mitchel v. United States, 34 U.S. 711 (1835).Google Scholar
Shillaber v. Waldo, 1 Haw. 21 (1847).Google Scholar
United States v. Clarke, 33 U.S. 436 (1834).Google Scholar
Wood v. Stark, 1 Haw. 9 (1847).CrossRefGoogle Scholar