Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-v2bm5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-04T13:49:12.234Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Legislating Organizational Probation: State Capacity, Business Power, and Corporate Crime Control

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2024

William S. Lofquist
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

This study examines the development of organizational probation. That this sanction emerged from the long process of developing organizational sentencing guidelines as a clearly specified, widely available, and often binding sanction represents an unexpected statutory outcome: an interventionist, nonmarket sanction during a time of deregulatory free market policy and ideology. This outcome is explained through a multi-theoretical framework emphasizing the structural capacity of the primary lawmaking agency, the United States Sentencing Commission, the role of middle-level state workers, and the bounded rationality of strategic decisions made by business strategists and lobbyists.

Type
The Production of Law in Dictatorship and Democracy
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 27 , Issue 4 , 1993 , pp. 741 - 783
Copyright
Copyright © 1993 by The Law and Society Association

Footnotes

An earlier version of this article was presented at the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences Annual Meetings, Pittsburgh, March 1992. I thank Valerie Hans, Gerry Turkel, Dave Ermann, Pan Hao, Gilbert Geis, and several anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on earlier drafts.

References

References

NOTE: As indicated in note 5, some sources listed here are on file with the U.S. Sentencing Commission (available through the Inter-University Consortium on Political and Social Research) or with the author. For each such source, the location of the material is indicated.Google Scholar
ABA Banking Journal (1992) “Sentencing Guidelines Spotlight Good Compliance.” 84 (3) ABA Banking J., p. 24 (March).Google Scholar
Abel, Charles F. (1985) “Corporate Crime and Restitution,” 9 J. of Offender Counseling, Services & Rehabilitation p. 71 (Spring).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adler, Robert W., & Lord, Charles (1991) “Environmental Crimes: Raising the Stakes,” 59 George Washington Law Rev. 781.Google Scholar
American Bar Association (1988) “Statement of Samuel J. Buffone, Chairperson, Committee on the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines, Section of Criminal Justice, on Behalf of the American Bar Association, before the United States Sentencing Commission Concerning Organizational Sanctions” (11 Oct.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
American Federation of Labor–Congress of Industrial Organizations, Building and Construction Trades (1990) Comments to United States Sentencing Commission on Application of Guidelines' Chapter Eight to Non-Profit Organizations (15 Feb.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
American Law Institute (1962) Model Penal Code, Official Draft. Philadelphia: American Law Institute.Google Scholar
American Law Institute (1985) Model Penal Code and Commentaries. Philadelphia: American Law Institute.Google Scholar
Auerbach, Jerold S. (1983) Justice without Law? New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Ayres, Ian, & Braithwaite, John (1992) Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, Jonathan B. (1988) “Supplementary Testimony of Jonathan B. Baker before the United States Sentencing Commission” (11 Oct.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Balbus, Isaac D. (1982) Marxism and Domination. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Baldwin, Rignal W. (1974) “The Application of the Federal Probation Act to the Corporate Entity,” 3 Baltimore Law Rev. 294.Google Scholar
Becker, Gary S. (1968) “Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach,” 76 J. of Political Economy 169.Google Scholar
Benson, Michael L., Cullen, Francis T., & Maakestad, William J. (1990) “Local Prosecutors and Corporate Crime,” 36 Crime & Delinquency 356.Google Scholar
Benson, Michael L., Maakestad, William J., Cullen, Francis T., & Geis, Gilbert (1988) “District Attorneys and Corporate Crime: Surveying the Prosecutorial Gatekeepers,” 25 Criminology 505.Google Scholar
Bernard, Thomas J. (1984) “The Historical Development of Corporate Criminal Liability,” 22 Criminology 3.Google Scholar
Best, Judah, Cole, Lance, & Darland, David (1992) “Complying with Sentencing Guidelines,” National Law J., pp. 19–20 (8 June).Google Scholar
Block, Fred (1977) “The Ruling Class Does not Rule: Notes on the Marxist Theory of the State,” 7 (3) Socialist Revolution No. 33, p. 6.Google Scholar
Block, Fred (1987) “Beyond Relative Autonomy: State Managers as Historical Subjects,” Revising State Theory: Essays in Politics and Postindustrialism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Block, Michael K. (1991) “Corporate Sentencing Guidelines: A Troubled Future.” Presented at Cato Institute Conference on Corporate Sentencing, Washington, DC (31 Oct.).Google Scholar
Block, Michael K., & Lott, John R. Jr. (1991) “Is Curbing Crime Worth the Cost?” New York Times, 5 May, sec. C, p. 13.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, John (1982) “Enforced Self-Regulation: A New Strategy for Corporate Crime Control,” 80 Michigan Law Rev. 1466.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, John (1985) To Punish or Persuade: The Enforcement of Coal Mine Safety. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, John (1992) “Corporate Crime and Republican Criminological Praxis.” Presented at Queens Univ. Conference on Corporate Crime: Ethics, Law and the State (Nov.).Google Scholar
Braithwaite, John, & Pettit, Philip (1990) Not Just Deserts: A Republican Theory of Criminal Justice. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Brickey, Kathleen F. (1984) Corporate Criminal Liability. 3 vols. Wilmette, IL: Callaghan & Co.Google Scholar
Roundtable, Business (1986) “Comments of the Business Roundtable on the Preliminary Draft Sentencing Guidelines” (3 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Roundtable, Business (1988) “Comments of the Business Roundtable on the Discussion Materials on Organizational Sanctions” (1 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Roundtable, Business (1990a) Memorandum to the General Counsels of Members of the Business Roundtable (3 Jan.). On file with author.Google Scholar
Roundtable, Business (1990b) “Comments of the Business Roundtable on the Proposed Guidelines for Sentencing of Organizations” (21 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Business Roundtable, National Association of Manufacturers, & the United States Chamber of Commerce (1991) Letter to Vice President Quayle, Attorney General Thornburgh, Secretary of Commerce Mosbacher, and Chair of Council of Economic Advisers Boskin (19 April). On file with author.Google Scholar
Calavita, Kitty (1983) “The Demise of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration: A Case Study in Symbolic Action,” 30 Social Problems 437.Google Scholar
Chambliss, William J. (1986) “On Lawmaking,” in Brickey, S. & Comack, E., eds., The Social Basis of Law: Critical Readings in the Sociology of Law. Toronto: Garamond Press.Google Scholar
Chambliss, William J., & Seidman, Robert (1982) Law, Order, and Power. 2d ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.Google Scholar
Champion, Dean, ed. (1989) The U.S. Sentencing Guidelines: Implications for Criminal Justice. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Chaset, Alan J., & Weintraub, Benson B. (1992) “New Guidelines for Sentencing Corporations,” Trial, pp. 41–44 (April).Google Scholar
Clinard, Marshall B., & Yeager, Peter C. (1980) Corporate Crime. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Coffee, John C. Jr. (1981) “‘No Soul to Damn: No Body to Kick’: An Unscandalized Inquiry into the Problem of Corporate Punishment,” 79 Michigan Law Rev. 386.Google Scholar
Coffee, John C. Jr. (1988) Statement of Professor John C. Coffee, Jr., Adolf A. Berle Professor of Law, Columbia University Law School, United States Sentencing Commission Hearing (11 Oct.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Coffee, John C. Jr. (1990a) “For Some Companies, Supervision Is the Best Form of Punishment,” Legal Times, pp. 23–24 (19 Feb.).Google Scholar
Coffee, John C. Jr. (1990b) “Levy Corporate Fines in Stock, not Cash,” Wall Street J., p. A14 (22 March).Google Scholar
Coffee, John C. Jr. (1991) “Big Corporations, Off the Hook,” Legal Times, pp. 22 ff. (6 May).Google Scholar
Coffee, John C. Jr., Gruner, Richard, & Stone, Christopher (1988) “Draft Proposal on Standards for Organizational Probation,” Discussion Materials on Organizational Sanctions. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Cohen, Mark A. (1989) “Corporate Crime and Punishment: A Study of Social Harm and Sentencing Practice in the Federal Courts, 1984–1987,” 26 American Criminal Law Rev. 605.Google Scholar
Cohen, Mark A. (1991) “Corporate Crime and Punishment: An Update on Sentencing Practice in the Federal Courts, 1988–1990,” 71 Boston Univ. Law Rev. 247.Google Scholar
Cohen, Mark A. (1992) “Environmental Crime and Punishment: Legal/Economic Theory and Empirical Evidence on Enforcement of Federal Environmental Statutes,” 82 J. of Criminal Law & Criminology 1054.Google Scholar
Cohen, Mark A., Ho, Chih-Chin, Jones, Edward D. III, & Schleich, Laura M. (1988) “Report to the U.S. Sentencing Commission on Sentencing of Organizations in the Federal Courts, 1984–1987,” Discussion Materials on Organizational Sanctions. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Coleman, James W. (1985a) “Law and Power: The Sherman Antitrust Act and Its Enforcement in the Petroleum Industry,” 32 Social Problems 264.Google Scholar
Coleman, James W. (1985b) The Criminal Elite. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Conley, Jean (1977) “Is It Time for Corporations to be on the Federal Charter?” 9 National J., p. 1772 (12 Nov.).Google Scholar
Corporate Crime Reporter (1988) “Interview with Professor John C. Coffee, Jr,” Corporate Crime Reporter, pp. 11–20 (5 Sept.).Google Scholar
Corporate Crime Reporter (1989) “Interview with Leonard Orland, Professor of Law, University of Connecticut,” Corporate Crime Reporter, pp. 11–16 (13 March).Google Scholar
Cullen, Francis T., Maakestad, William J., & Cavender, Gray (1987) Corporate Crime under Attack: The Ford Pinto Case and Beyond. Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Curran, James D. (1986) “Probation for Corporations under the Sentencing Reform Act,” 26 Santa Clara Law Rev. 785.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. (1956) A Preface to Democratic Theory. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Dent, George W. Jr. (1983) “Ancillary Relief in Federal Securities Law: A Study in Federal Remedies,” 67 Minnesota Law Rev. 865.Google Scholar
Domestic Policy Council (1988) “Remarks of Thomas G. Moore, Chair, Working Group on Corporate Sentencing, Domestic Policy Council, before the United State Sentencing Commission” (11 Oct.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Domhoff, G. William (1983) Who Rules America Now? Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Domhoff, G. William (1990) The Power Elite and the State: How Policy Is Made in America. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Engel, David L. (1979) “An Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility,” 32 Stanford Law Rev. 1.Google Scholar
Environmental Crimes Project (1992) Criminal Environmental Prosecution by the United States Department of Justice. Preliminary Report. National Law Center, George Washington Univ. On file with author.Google Scholar
Ermann, M. David (1990) “Concealing Hazards: Why People Working in Large Organizations Make Deadly Decisions.” Unpublished, Univ. of Delaware.Google Scholar
Ermann, M. David, & Lundman, Richard J., eds. (1992) Corporate and Governmental Deviance. 4th ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Esping-Andersen, Gosta (1985) Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Etzioni, Amitai (1993) “The U.S. Sentencing Commission on Corporate Crime: A Critique,” Annals of the American Academy of Political & Social Science No. 525, p. 147.Google Scholar
Farrand, James R. (1976) “Ancillary Remedies in SEC Civil Enforcement Suits,” 89 Harvard Law Rev. 1779.Google Scholar
First, Harry (1988) “Testimony of Professor Harry First, Professor of Law, New York University School of Law, before the United States Sentencing Commission” (11 Oct.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Fisse, Brent (1971) “The Use of Publicity as a Criminal Sanction against Business Corporations,” 8 Melbourne Univ. Law Rev. 1733.Google Scholar
Fisse, Brent (1981) “Community Service as a Sanction against Corporations,” 1981 Wisconsin Law Rev. 970.Google Scholar
Fisse, Brent (1983) “Reconstructing Corporate Criminal Law: Deterrence, Retribution, Fault, and Sanctions,” 56 Southern California Law Rev. 1141.Google Scholar
Fisse, Brent, & Braithwaite, John (1983) The Impact of Publicity on Corporate Offenders. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.Google Scholar
Flood, John (1991) “Doing Business: The Management of Uncertainty in Lawyer's Work,” 25 Law & Society Rev. 41.Google Scholar
Frank, Nancy (1983) “From Criminal to Civil Penalties in the History of Health and Safety Laws,” 30 Social Problems 532.Google Scholar
Friedman, Howard M. (1979) “Some Reflections on the Corporation as Criminal Defendant,” 55 Notre Dame Lawyer 173.Google Scholar
Friedman, Lawrence M. (1977) Law and Society: An Introduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Galbraith, John Kenneth (1985) The New Industrial State. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.Google Scholar
Gelacak, Michael (1991) “The Corporate Sentencing Guidelines: What Have They Done? What Will They Do?” Presented at Cato Institute Conference on Corporate Sentencing. Washington, DC (31 Oct).Google Scholar
Greider, William (1992) Who Will Tell the People? New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Gruner, Richard (1988) “To Let the Punishment Fit the Organization: Sanctioning Corporate Offenders through Corporate Probation,” 16 American J. of Criminal Law 1.Google Scholar
Gruner, Richard (1990) “Comments to the United States Sentencing Commission on Proposed Organizational Sentencing Guidelines” (11 March). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Gusfield, Joseph R. (1963) Symbolic Crusade. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Hagan, John (1989) “Why Is There So Little Criminal Justice Theory? Neglected Macro- and Micro-Level Links between Organization and Power,” 26 J. of Research in Crime & Delinquency 116.Google Scholar
Hawkins, Keith (1984) Environment and Enforcement: Regulation and the Social Definition of Pollution. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, Keith, & Thomas, John M. (1989) “Making Policy in Regulatory Bureaucracies,” in Hawkins, K. & Thomas, J. M., eds., Making Regulatory Policy. Pittsburgh: Univ. of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Hayes, Arthur S. (1991) “Businesses Are Slow to Respond to Corporate Sentencing Guidelines,” Wall Street J. 1 Nov., sec. B, pp. 1 + .Google Scholar
Heydebrand, Wolf (1990) “Government Litigation and National Policymaking: From Roosevelt to Reagan,” 24 Law & Society Rev. 477.Google Scholar
Hilts, Philip J. (1991) “Questions on Role of Quayle Council,” New York Times. 19 Nov., sec. B, p. 12.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Andrew (1979) “Pressure Groups and the Law,” 3 Contemporary Crises 69.Google Scholar
Isikoff, Michael (1990) “Justice Dept. Shifts on Corporate Sentencing,” Washington Post, 28 April, sec. A, p. 1 + .Google Scholar
Kaplan, Jeffrey M., & Perry, William K. (1991) “The High Cost of Corporate Crime,” 73 Management Accounting, pp. 43–45 (Dec).Google Scholar
Katz, Jack (1980) “The Social Movement against White-Collar Crime,” in Bittner, E. & Messinger, S. L., eds., 2 Criminology Review Yearbook 161. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Kiser, Edgar, & Hechter, Michael (1991) “The Role of General Theory in Comparative-Historical Sociology,” 97 American J. of Sociology 1.Google Scholar
Kolko, Gabriel (1963) The Triumph of Conservatism. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Korpi, Walter (1983) The Democratic Class Struggle. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Laitinen, Ahti (1991) “The Problems of Controlling Organizational Crime.” Presented at American Society of Criminology Annual Meetings, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Lavelle, Marianne (1992) “More Lawyers Expect to Urge Their Clients to Examine Compliance,” National Law J. pp. S6–S7 (16 March).Google Scholar
Levin, Marjorie H. (1984) “Corporate Probation Conditions: Judicial Creativity or Abuse of Discretion?” 52 Fordham Law Rev. 637.Google Scholar
Lewis, Neil A. (1990) “Bush Aide Intervened on Stiff Fines for Business,” New York Times, 29 April, sec. L, p. 23.Google Scholar
Lipset, Seymour Martin, & Schneider, William (1987) The Confidence Gap: Business, Labor, and Government in the Public Mind. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Lofquist, William S. (1992) “Crafting Corporate Crime Controls: The Development of Organizational Probation and Its Implications for Criminology.” Ph.D. diss., Dept. of Sociology, Univ. of Delaware.Google Scholar
Lofquist, William S. (1993) “Organizational Probation and the U.S. Sentencing Commission,” Annals of the American Academy of Political & Social Science No. 525, p. 157.Google Scholar
Lombardero, David A. (1991) “Evolution of the Initial Set of Guidelines and Early Revisions.” Presented at Cato Institute Conference on Corporate Sentencing, Washington, DC (31 Oct.).Google Scholar
Lott, John R. Jr. (1991) “Will Consumers Be Haunted by the U.S. Sentencing Commission Corporate Guidelines?” Presented at Cato Institute Conference on Corporate Sentencing, Washington, DC (31 Oct.).Google Scholar
McCaffrey, David P. (1982) “Corporate Resources and Regulatory Pressures: Toward Explaining a Discrepancy,” 27 Administrative Science Q. 398.Google Scholar
March, James G., & Simon, Herbert A. (1963) Organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Metzger, Michael B., & Schwenk, Charles R. (1990) “Decision Making Models, Devil's Advocacy, and the Control of Corporate Crime,” 28 American Business Law J. 323.Google Scholar
Miliband, Ralph (1969) The State in Capitalist Society. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Nader, Ralph (1973) “The Case for Federal Chartering,” in Nader, R. & Green, M.J., eds., Corporate Power in America. New York: Grossman.Google Scholar
National Association of Manufacturers (1990) “Testimony on the Proposed Organizational Sentencing Guidelines of the U.S. Sentencing Commission by Earlyn Church, Superior Technical Ceramics Corporation, on Behalf of the National Association of Manufacturers, before the United States Sentencing Commission” (14 Feb.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
National Association of Manufacturers (1991) “Additional Comments of the National Association of Manufacturers Concerning Proposed Organizational Sentencing Guidelines, United States Sentencing Commission” (9 Jan.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Obermaier, Otto G. (1991) “A Practical Partnership,” National Law J., pp. 13–14 (11 Nov.).Google Scholar
Obermaier, Otto G. (1992) “Drafting Companies to Fight Crime,” New York Times, 24 May, sec. F, p. 11.Google Scholar
O'Connor, James (1973) The Fiscal Crisis of the State. New York: St. Martin's Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orland, Leonard (1980) “Reflections on Corporate Crime: Law in Search of Theory and Scholarship,” 17 (4) American Criminal Law Rev. 501.Google Scholar
Orland, Leonard (1991a) “Corporate Punishments by the U.S. Sentencing Commission,” 4 (2) Federal Sentencing Reporter, p. 50 (July/Aug.).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orland, Leonard (1991b) “The Commission's Supplemental Report on Corporate Punishment: Where Is the Statement of Reasons?” 4 (3) Federal Sentencing Reporter, pp. 158–60 (Nov./Dec).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, Jeffrey S. (1987) “Optimal Penalties for Organizations”: Memorandum to Commissioner Block, U.S. Sentencing Commission (15 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Parker, Jeffrey S. (1988) “Criminal Sentencing Policy for Organizations,” Discussion Materials on Organizational Sanctions. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Parker, Jeffrey S. (1991) “Doctrine for Destruction: The Case of Corporate Criminal Liability.” Presented at Cato Institute Conference on Corporate Sentencing, Washington, DC (31 Oct.).Google Scholar
Perrow, Charles (1986) Complex Organizations: A Critical Essay. 3d ed. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Phillips, Kevin (1990) The Politics of Rich and Poor. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Platt, Anthony M. (1969) The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Pontell, Henry N. (1982) “System Capacity and Criminal Justice: Theoretical and Substantive Considerations,” in Pepinsky, H. E., ed., Rethinking Criminology. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Pepinsky, H. E. (1992) “Corporate Crime and Criminal Justice System Capacity: U.S. Government Response to Financial Institution Fraud.” Presented at Conference on Corporate Crime, Ethics, Law & the State, Kingston, Ontario (Nov.).Google Scholar
Posner, Richard A. (1980) “Optimal Sentences for White-Collar Criminals,” 17 American Criminal Law Rev. 409.Google Scholar
Poulantzas, Nicos (1973) Political Power and Social Classes, trans. O'Hagan, T.. London: New Left Books.Google Scholar
Quinney, Richard (1974) Critique of Legal Order. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.Google Scholar
Reich, Robert B. (1981) “Regulation by Confrontation or Negotiation?” 59 Harvard Business Rev., pp. 82–93 (May-June).Google Scholar
Rogers, Joel (1991) “Traveling Light: State Theory and Sociolegal Research,” 11 Studies in Law, Politics, & Society 287.Google Scholar
Rush, Fred L. Jr. (1986) “Corporate Probation: Invasive Techniques for Restructuring Institutional Behavior,” 21 Suffolk Univ. Law Revi 33.Google Scholar
Sabatier, Paul A. (1977) “Regulatory Policy-Making: Toward A Framework of Analysis,” 17 (3) Natural Resources J. 415.Google Scholar
Sanders, Elizabeth (1990) “State Theory and American Political Development,” 10 Studies in Law, Politics, & Society 93.Google Scholar
Savelsberg, Joachim J. (1992) “Law that Does not Fit Society: Sentencing Guidelines as a Neoclassical Reaction to the Dilemmas of Substantivized Law,” 97 American J. of Sociology 1346.Google Scholar
Schmitter, Philippe (1985) “Neo-corporatism and the State,” in Grant, W., ed., The Political Economy of Corporatism. London: MacMillan Publishers.Google Scholar
Schneider, Keith (1992) “U.S. Mine Inspectors Charge Interference by Agency Director,” New York Times, 22 Nov., pp. 1 + .Google Scholar
Shute, Nancy (1991) “Unfair Competition,” 13 Amicus J., p. 31 (Summer).Google Scholar
Silk, Leonard, & Vogel, David (1976) Ethics and Profits. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Simon, Herbert A. (1979) “Rational Decision Making in Business Organizations,” 69 American Economic Rev. 493.Google Scholar
Sklar, Martin J. (1988) The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890–1916. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skocpol, Theda (1980) “Political Response to Capitalist Crisis: Neo-Marxist Theories of the State and the Case of the New Deal,” 10 Politics & Society 155.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda (1985) “Bringing the State Back in: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research,” in Evans, P. B., Rueschemeyer, D., & Skocpol, T., eds., Bringing the State Back in. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda, & Finegold, Kenneth (1982) “State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal,” 97 Political Science Q. 255.Google Scholar
Snider, Laureen (1987) “Towards a Political Economy of Reform, Regulation and Corporate Crime,” 9 Law & Policy 37.Google Scholar
Standen, Jeffrey (1991) “Prolegomenon to Corporate Punishment.” Presented at Cato Institute Conference on Corporate Sentencing, Washington, DC (31 Oct.).Google Scholar
Stone, Christopher D. (1975) Where the Law Ends: The Social Control of Corporate Behavior. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Stone, Christopher D. (1988) Testimony before the U.S. Sentencing Commission (2 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Strasser, Fred (1989) “Commission Would Up Punishment,” National Law J., 20 Nov., p. 3 + .Google Scholar
Strasser, Fred (1991) “Shifting Sands,” National Law J., 13 May, p. 6.Google Scholar
Thompson, E. P. (1975) Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Thornburgh, Dick (1991) “Criminal Enforcement of Environmental Laws—A National Priority,” 59 George Washington Law Rev. 775.Google Scholar
Toensing, Victoria (1990) “Corporations on Probation: Sentenced to Fail,” Legal Times, 12 Feb., pp. 21–22.Google Scholar
Tonry, Michael (1991) “The Politics and Processes of Sentencing Commissions,” 37 Crime & Delinquency 307.Google Scholar
Turkel, Gerald, & Lofquist, William S. (1991) “Privatizing Nuclear Power and the Price-Anderson Act: Establishing Limits to Liability,” 11 Studies in Law, Politics, & Society 143.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Justice (1989) “Criminal Division Revised Draft Organizational Sentencing Guidelines Discussion Paper” (31 Jan.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Justice (1990) Letter to Honorable William W. Wilkins, Jr., Chairman, U.S. Sentencing Commission, from Richard Thornburgh, U.S. Attorney General (12 Oct.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1988) James M. Strock, Deputy Assistant Administrator for Criminal Enforcement. “Remarks to U.S. Sentencing Commission” (2 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1990) James M. Strock, Assistant Administrator for Enforcement. “Remarks to the U.S. Sentencing Commission” (14 Feb.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1991) Memorandum from Bruce G. Bellin to James Strock (8 May). On file with author.Google Scholar
U.S. Food & Drug Administration (1988) Testimony of Arthur N. Levine, Deputy Chief Counsel for Litigation, United States Food and Drug Administration, before the United States Sentencing Commission, on Discussion Materials on Organizational Sanctions (2 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Food & Drug Administration (1990) Remarks on Draft Guidelines for Organizational Defendants (10 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. House of Representatives (1980) Criminal Code Revision Act of 1980. House Report 96-1396. Committee on the Judiciary, 96th Cong., 2d sess. Washington, DC: GPO.Google Scholar
U.S. House of Representatives (1990) Oversight on the U.S. Sentencing Commission and Guidelines for Organizational Sanctions. Washington, DC: GPO.Google Scholar
U.S. International Trade Commission (1988) Testimony of Ronald A. Cass, United States International Trade Commission, before the United States Sentencing Commission (11 Oct.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. National Commission on Reform of Federal Criminal Laws (1970a) Working Papers of the National Commission on Reform of Federal Criminal Laws. 2 vol. Washington, DC: GPO.Google Scholar
U.S. National Commission on Reform of Federal Criminal Laws (1970b) Study Draft of a New Federal Criminal Code. Washington, DC: GPO.Google Scholar
U.S. National Commission on Reform of Federal Criminal Laws (1971) A Proposed New Federal Criminal Code. Washington, DC: GPO.Google Scholar
U.S. Senate (1977) Criminal Code Reform Act of 1977. Senate Report 95-605. Committee on the Judiciary, 95th Cong., 1st sess. Washington, DC: GPO.Google Scholar
U.S. Senate (1983) Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1983. Senate Report 98-225. Committee on the Judiciary, 98th Cong., 1st sess. Washington, DC: GPO.Google Scholar
U.S. Sentencing Commission (1988a) “Discussion Draft of Sentencing Guidelines and Policy Statements for Organizations,” Discussion Materials on Organizational Sanctions. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Sentencing Commission (1988b) Public Hearing on Organizational Sanctions, New York City (11 Oct.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Sentencing Commission (1988c) Public Hearing on Organizational Sanctions, Pasadena, CA (2 Dec). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Sentencing Commission (1989) Preliminary Draft, Sentencing Guidelines for Organizational Defendants. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission (1 Nov.).Google Scholar
U.S. Sentencing Commission (1990a) Public Hearing on Organizational Sanctions (14 Feb.). On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Sentencing Commission (1990b) “Sentencing Guidelines for Organizational Defendants,” 55 (214) Federal Register 46601–15.Google Scholar
U.S. Sentencing Commission (1991a) Minutes of the Meetings of the United States Sentencing Commission. On file with U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
U.S. Sentencing Commission (1991b) “Sentencing Guidelines for Organizational Defendants,” April 26. Washington, DC: U.S. Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Useem, Michael (1984) The Inner Circle. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Vogel, David (1978) “Why Businessmen Distrust Their State: The Political Consciousness of American Corporate Executives,” 8 British J. of Political Science 45.Google Scholar
Vogel, David (1988) Fluctuating Fortunes: The Political Power of Business in America. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Wald, Matthew L. (1992) “Grand Jury Seeks Inquiry on Weapons Plant Case,” New York Times, 11 Nov., p. A-16.Google Scholar
Wallance, Gregory J. (1991) “Guidelines on Corporate Crime Emphasize Prevention Programs,” National Law J, 1 July, pp. 22–23.Google Scholar
Weinstein, James (1968) The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900–1918. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Wray, Christopher A. (1992) “Corporate Probation under the New Organizational Sentencing Guidelines,” 101 Yale Law J. 2017.Google Scholar
Wright, Ronald F. (1991) “Sentencers, Bureaucrats, and the Administrative Law Perspective on the Federal Sentencing Commission,” 79 California Law Rev. 1.Google Scholar
Yeager, Matthew G. (1984) “Community Redress against the Corporate Offender,” Crime & Social Justice, Nos. 21–22, pp. 223–227.Google Scholar
Yeager, Peter C. (1987) “Structural Bias in Regulatory Law Enforcement: The Case of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,” 34 (4) Social Problems 330.Google Scholar
Yeager, Peter C. (1991) The Limits of Law: The Public Regulation of Private Pollution. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yost, Paula (1989a) “Charges of Politics Dog Sentencing Panel,” Washington Post, 4 July, sec. A, p. 21.Google Scholar
Yost, Paula (1989b) “Sentencing Panel's Quandary: Whether to Work Part-Time,” Washington Post, 22 Aug., sec. A, p. 17.Google Scholar
Yost, Paula (1989c) “Sentencing Panel Member Resigns over Research,” Washington Post, 23 Aug., sec. A, p. 25.Google Scholar
Zagrocki, Eric J. (1992) “Federal Sentencing Guidelines: The Key to Corporate Integrity or Death Blow to Any Corporation Guilty of Misconduct?” 38 Duquesne Law Rev. 331.Google Scholar

Cases Cited

Melrose Distillers v. United States, 359 U.S. 271 (1959).Google Scholar
Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S. 361 (1989).Google Scholar
State ex rel. Howell Cty., 232 Mo. 579; 135 S.W. 20 (1911).Google Scholar
United States v. Atlantic Richfield Co. (“ARCO”), 71 CR 524 (1971); 465 F.2d 58 (1972).Google Scholar
United States v. Mitsubishi International Corp., 677 F.2d 785 (1982).Google Scholar

Statutes Cited

Comprehensive Crime Control Act, tit. II, Pub. L. 98-473, 98 Stat. 1976 (1911).Google Scholar
Criminal Fines Improvement Act of 1987, Pub. L. 100-185, 101 Stat. 1279 (1987). Public Law 89-901, 80 Stat. 1516 (1966).Google Scholar
Sentencing Reform Act (SRA) of 1984, Pub. L. 98-473, 98 Stat. 1987 (1984).Google Scholar