Hostname: page-component-5f56664f6-287w5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-08T04:52:01.868Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

With the Law or against the Law? A Qualitative Analysis of the Development and Outcomes of Legal Consciousness among Law-Abiding Firearms Owners

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 July 2023

Zachary Miner
Zachary Miner*
Affiliation:
Associate Professor of Sociology, Fitchburg State University, Fitchburg, MA, United States. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores the legal consciousness of legal gun owners in upstate New York using a qualitative, grounded theory approach. Respondents’ accounts reveal that their experiences cause them to respect and support the law in certain contexts but feel oppressed by it in other contexts. These perceptions stem from engagement with law, and especially the passage of the New York Secure Ammunition and Firearms Enforcement Act of 2013, in which they see legal actors behaving in ways that violate their beliefs about how law is supposed to operate. Respondents believe themselves to be at a legal disadvantage due to distinctive features of New York politics, particularly the belief that New York City residents have an outsized role in statewide politics. These findings offer insights into how gun owners engage with the law and, more generally, into the conditions under which groups feel engaged with—or disconnected from—legal and political processes.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 49 , Issue 3 , August 2024 , pp. 1344 - 1371
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Bar Foundation

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

The author wishes to thank the interview participants who shared their experiences, as well as the anonymous reviewers for their valuable feedback. The author also wishes to thank Ryan King, Steve Messner, and Jamie Fader for their assistance with the dissertation project from which this article arose. This research was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University at Albany.

References

REFERENCES

Abrego, Leisy J. “Legal Consciousness of Undocumented Latinos: Fear and Stigma as Barriers to Claims-Making for First- and 1.5-Generation Immigrants.” Law & Society Review 45, no. 2 (2011): 337–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2011.00435.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albers, Benjamin Daniel. “On Being a Gun Owner: Firearms and the Cultivation of Identity.” PhD diss., Duke University, 2003.Google Scholar
Anderson, Leon, and Taylor, Jimmy D.. “Standing out While Fitting in: Serious Leisure Identities and Aligning Actions among Skydivers and Gun Collectors.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 39, no. 1 (2010): 34–59.10.1177/0891241609343291CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aneja, Abhay, Donohue, John J., and Zhang, Alexandria. “The Impact of Right to Carry Laws and the NRC Report: The Latest Lessons for the Empirical Evaluation of Law and Policy.” Stanford Law and Economics Olin Working Paper No. 461. 2014. http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2443681.10.2139/ssrn.2443681CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayres, Ian, and Donohue, John J.. “Shooting Down the ‘More Guns, Less Crime’ Hypothesis.” Stanford Law Review 55, no. 4 (2003): 1193–1312.Google Scholar
Barragan, Melissa. “Policing and Punishing Illegal Gun Behavior: An Examination of Jail Detainee Experiences with Gun Law Enforcement in Los Angeles.” Social Problems 69, no. 4 (2022): 1170–87. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spab025.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barragan, Melissa, Sherman, Nicole, Reiter, Keramet, and Tita, George E.. “‘Damned If You Do, Damned If You Don’t’: Perceptions of Guns, Safety, and Legitimacy among Detained Gun Offenders.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 43, no. 1 (2016): 140–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854815611707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berk, Richard A. “Knowing When to Fold ’Em: An Essay on Evaluating the Impact of Ceasefire, Compstat, and Exile.” Criminology & Public Policy 4, no. 3 (2005): 451–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2005.00314.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birkeland, Bente. “Colorado Has Several New Historic Gun Control Laws, All Passed with Little Pushback. What’s Next?” Colorado Public Radio. June 22, 2021. https://www.cpr.org/2021/06/22/colorado-new-gun-control-laws/.Google Scholar
Blackstone, Amy, Uggen, Christopher, and McLaughlin, Heather. “Legal Consciousness and Responses to Sexual Harassment.” Law & Society Review 43, no. 3 (2009): 631–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2009.00384.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blocher, Joseph, and Miller, Darrell A. H.. The Positive Second Amendment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2018.10.1017/9781316666029CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boittin, Margaret L. “New Perspectives from the Oldest Profession: Abuse and the Legal Consciousness of Sex Workers in China.” Law & Society Review 47, no. 2 (2013): 245–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, Anthony A., Wintemute, Garen J., Pierce, Glenn L., Cook, Philip J., and Ridgeway, Greg. “Interpreting the Empirical Evidence on Illegal Gun Market Dynamics.” Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 89, no. 5 (2012): 779–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-012-9681-y.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braman, Donald, and Kahan, Dan M.. “More Statistics, Less Persuasion: A Cultural Theory of Gun-Risk Perceptions.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 151, no. 4 (2003): 1291–1327. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=286205.Google Scholar
Burbick, Joan. Gun Show Nation: Gun Culture and American Democracy. New York: New Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Table 11. Time Spent in Leisure and Sports Activities for the Civilian Population by Selected Characteristics, 2014 Annual Averages.” 2015. http://www.bls.gov/news.release/atus.t11.htm.Google Scholar
Carlson, Jennifer. “The Equalizer? Crime, Vulnerability, and Gender in Pro-Gun Discourse.” Feminist Criminology 9, no. 1 (2014): 59–83.10.1177/1557085113502518CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, Jennifer. Citizen Protectors: The Everyday Politics of Guns in an Age of Decline. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199347551.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, Jennifer. Policing the Second Amendment: Guns, Law Enforcement, and the Politics of Race. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020.Google Scholar
Carlson, Jennifer, and James, Rina. “Conspicuously Concealed: Federal Funding, Knowledge Production, and the Criminalization of Gun Research.” Sociological Perspectives 65, no. 1 (2022): 196–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/07311214211012022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charmaz, Cathy. “Grounded Theory.” In Contemporary Field Research, edited by Emerson, R. M., 335–52. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press Inc., 1995.Google Scholar
Cohn, Nate. “Get Ready for Gun Control as a Wedge Issue in 2016.” The New Republic. April 22, 2013. https://newrepublic.com/article/112983/gun-control-2016-wedge-issue-helps-democrats.Google Scholar
Combs, Thatcher Phoenix. “Queers with Guns? Against the LGBT Grain.” Sociological Perspectives 65, no. 1 (2022): 58–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/07311214211021122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, Philip J., Harris, Richard J., Ludwig, Jens, and Pollack, Harold A.. “Some Sources of Crime Guns in Chicago: Dirty Dealers, Straw Purchasers, and Traffickers.” Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 104, no. 4 (2015): 717–59.Google Scholar
Cook, Philip J., and Ludwig, Jens. “Guns in America: National Survey on Private Ownership and Use of Firearms.” U.S. Department of Justice: National Institute of Justice. May 1997. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/165476.pdf.10.1037/e514612006-001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeFusco, Jackie. “Five New Gun Control Laws Take Effect July 1 in Virginia.” abc8NEWS. June 8, 2021. https://www.wric.com/news/five-new-gun-laws-take-effect-july-1-in-virginia/.Google Scholar
Denton, Nancy, Friedman, Samantha, and D’Anna, Nicole. “How the Other Third Lives: A Focus on Upstate New York.” n.d. Accessed May 26, 2016. http://mumford.albany.edu/mumford/UpstateProject/geography.html.Google Scholar
Edelman, Adam. “Low Assault-Weapon Registration Stats Suggest Low Compliance with Gov. Cuomo’s Landmark SAFE Act Gun Control Law.” New York Daily News. June 23, 2015. https://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/ny-safe-act-weapons-registry-numbers-released-article-1.2267730.Google Scholar
Ewick, Patricia, and Silbey, Susan. The Common Place of Law. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.10.7208/chicago/9780226212708.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fahey, Helen F., Comey, James B., Miller, Stephen W., Schiller, David S., Heaps, Cameron, and McKeel, Lisa. “Project Exile: Richmond.” U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Eastern District of Virginia. February 15, 1999. https://web.archive.org/web/20080806115913/http://www.vahv.org/Exile/Richmond/PE-R005.html.Google Scholar
Fay, Suzanna. “Gun Dealer Motivations for Complying with the Law: Lessons from the Australian Experience of Gun Control.” Sociological Perspectives 65, no. 1 (2022): 154–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/07311214211021127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fritsvold, Erik D. “Under the Law: Legal Consciousness and Radical Environmental Activism.” Law & Social Inquiry 34, no. 4 (2009): 799–824. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.2009.01168.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gianaris, Michael N. “Redrawing the Political Map.” New York Times. February 5, 2006. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/opinion/nyregionopinions/05LIgianaris.html.Google Scholar
Glaser, Barney G., and Strauss, Anselm L.. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1967.Google Scholar
Gleeson, Shannon. “Labor Rights for All? The Role of Undocumented Immigrant Status for Worker Claims Making.” Law & Social Inquiry 35, no. 3 (2010): 561–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.2010.01196.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenblatt, Alan. “Congratulations, New York, You’re #1 in Corruption.” Politico Magazine. May 5, 2015. http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/05/how-new-york-became-most-corrupt-state-in-america-117652.Google Scholar
He, Xin, Wang, Lungang, and Su, Yang. “Above the Roof, beneath the Law: Perceived Justice behind Disruptive Tactics of Migrant Wage Claimants in China.” Law & Society Review 47, no. 4 (2013): 703–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12043.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hepburn, L., Miller, M., Azrael, D., and Hemenway, D.. “The US Gun Stock: Results from the 2004 National Firearms Survey.” Injury Prevention 13, no. 1 (2007): 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2006.013607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hobbs, Frank, and Stoops, Nicole. “Demographic Trends in the 20th Century.” U.S. Census Bureau. November 2002. https://web.archive.org/web/20120112025345/https:/www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/censr-4.pdf.Google Scholar
Hoffmann, Elizabeth A. “Legal Consciousness and Dispute Resolution: Different Disputing Behavior at Two Similar Taxicab Companies.” Law & Social Inquiry 28, no. 3 (2003): 691–716.10.1111/j.1747-4469.2003.tb00212.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, James B., and Fuhr, Zoe. The Toughest Gun Control Law in the Nation: The Unfulfilled Promise of New York’s SAFE Act. New York: New York University Press, 2019.Google Scholar
Kelley, Margaret S. “Feminism and Firearms: Gun Ownership, Gun Carrying, and Women’s Empowerment.” Sociological Perspectives 65, no. 1 (2021): 77–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/07311214211028603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kellner, D. “Media Spectacle and Domestic Terrorism: The Case of the Batman/Joker Cinema Massacre.” Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies 35, no. 3 (2013): 157–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2013.799364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, David Howard. “SAFE Act Haunts Movement on Gun Safety Legislation.” Gotham Gazette. May 18, 2015. http://www.gothamgazette.com/index.php/government/5728-safe-act-haunts-movement-on-gun-safety-legislation.Google Scholar
Kleck, Gary, and Kevin Wang, Shun-Yung. “The Second Amendment and the Right to Bear Arms after D.C. v. Heller: The Myth of Big-Time Gun Trafficking and the Overinterpretation of Gun Tracing Data.” UCLA Law Review 56, no. 5 (2009): 1233–94.Google Scholar
Kohn, Abigail Alma. “Shooters: The Moral World of Gun Enthusiasts.” PhD diss., University of California, San Francisco with the University of California, Berkeley, 2000.Google Scholar
Kohn, Abigail Alma. Shooters: Myths and Realities of America’s Gun Cultures. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195150513.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koper, C. S., Woods, Daniel J., and Roth, Jeffrey A.. “Updated Assessment of the Federal Assault Weapon Ban: Impacts of Gun Markets & Gun Violence, 1994-2003.” U.S. Department of Justice. 2004. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/204431.pdf.Google Scholar
Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. “Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence – Gun Law Information Experts.” May 4, 2016. http://smartgunlaws.org/in-the-thick-of-it-2016s-busy-legislative-cycle/.Google Scholar
Leigh, Andrew, and Neill, Christine. “Do Gun Buybacks Save Lives? Evidence from Panel Data.” American Law and Economics Review 12, no. 2 (2010): 509–57.10.1093/aler/ahq013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lofland, John, Snow, David, Anderson, Leon, and Lofland, Lyn H.. Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006.Google Scholar
Lott, John R. More Guns, Less Crime: Understanding Crime and Gun-Control Laws. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1998) 2010.Google Scholar
Luo, Michael. “N.R.A. Stymies Firearms Research, Scientists Say.” New York Times. January 25, 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/26/us/26guns.html.Google Scholar
Marshall, Anna-Maria. “Idle Rights: Employees’ Rights Consciousness and the Construction of Sexual Harassment Policies.” Law & Society Review 39, no. 1 (2005): 83–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0023-9216.2005.00078.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Robert A., and Legault, Richard L.. “Systematic Measurement Error with State-Level Crime Data: Evidence from the ‘More Guns, Less Crime’ Debate.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 42, no. 2 (2005): 187–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427804270052.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, Justin. “More Than Six in 10 Americans Say Guns Make Homes Safer.” Gallup. November 7, 2014. http://www.gallup.com/poll/179213/six-americans-say-guns-homes-safer.aspx.Google Scholar
McDowall, David, and Loftin, Colin. “Collective Security and the Demand for Legal Handguns.” American Journal of Sociology 88, no. 6 (1983): 1146–61.10.1086/227798CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinley, Jesse. “Who Controls the New York State Senate? It’s Complicated.” New York Times. April 20, 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/21/nyregion/who-controls-the-new-york-state-senate-its-complicated.html?_r=1.Google Scholar
Carson, Mencken, F., and Froese, Paul. “Gun Culture in Action.” Social Problems 66, no. 1 (2019): 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spx040.Google Scholar
Metzl, Jonathan M. Dying of Whiteness: How the Politics of Racial Resentment Is Killing America’s Heartland. New York: Basic Books, 2019.Google Scholar
Mooney, Chris. “Double Barreled Double Standards.” Mother Jones. October 13, 2003. http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2003/10/double-barreled-double-standards.Google Scholar
National Rifle Association. “Warning — Anti-Gun Survey of Firearms Dealers under Way!” NRA-ILA. June 29, 2011. https://www.nraila.org/articles/20110629/warning-anti-gun-survey-of-firearms.Google Scholar
New York State Senate. “About Us | NY State Senate.” n.d. Accessed May 24, 2016. https://www.nysenate.gov/about-us.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Laura Beth. “Situating Legal Consciousness: Experiences and Attitudes of Ordinary Citizens about Law and Street Harassment.” Law & Society Review 34, no. 4 (2000): 1055–90.10.2307/3115131CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NY SAFE Resolutions. “Resolutions - NY SAFE Resolutions.” n.d. Accessed May 24, 2016. http://www.nysaferesolutions.com/resolutions/#counties.Google Scholar
Parker, Kim, Julia Menasce, Ruth Igielnik, Oliphant, Baxter, and Brown, Anna. “America’s Complex Relationship with Guns: An In-Depth Look at the Attitudes and Experiences of U.S. Adults.” Pew Research Center. June 22, 2017. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2017/06/22/americas-complex-relationship-with-guns/.Google Scholar
Peters, Jeremy W., and Hakim, Danny. “Republicans Seize Control of State Senate.” New York Times. June 8, 2009. http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/06/08/revolt-could-imperil-democratic-control-of-senate/.Google Scholar
Provine, Doris Marie, Luz Rojas-Wiesner, Martha, and Martínez Velasco, Germán. “Peripheral Matters: The Emergence of Legalized Politics in Local Struggles over Unauthorized Immigration.” Law & Social Inquiry 39, no. 3 (2014): 601–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/lsi.12080.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raphael, Steven, and Ludwig, Jens. “Do Prison Sentence Enhancements Reduce Gun Crime? The Case of Project Exile.” In Evaluating Gun Policy, edited by Ludwig, Jens and Philip, J. Cook, 251–86. Washington, DC: Brookings, 2003.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, Richard, Fornango, Robert, and Baumer, Eric. “Did Ceasefire, Compstat, and Exile Reduce Homicide?” Criminology & Public Policy 4, no. 3 (2005): 419–50.10.1111/j.1745-9133.2005.00310.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwenken, Helen. “‘The EU Should Talk to Germany’ Transnational Legal Consciousness as a Rights Claiming Tool among Undocumented Migrants.” International Migration 51, no. 6 (2013): 132–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapira, Harel, Jensen, Katherine, and Lin, Ken-Hou. “Trends and Patterns of Concealed Handgun License Applications: A Multistate Analysis.” Social Currents 5, no. 1 (2018): 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329496517725334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silbey, Susan S. “After Legal Consciousness.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 1, no. 1 (2005): 323–68. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.1.041604.115938.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, David. Grounded Theory and Credibility. Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2011.Google Scholar
Simon, Jonathan. “Gun Rights and the Constitutional Significance of Violent Crime.” William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal 12, no. 2 (2004): 335–56.Google Scholar
Smith, Douglas A., and Uchida, Craig D.. “The Social Organization of Self-Help: A Study of Defensive Weapon Ownership.” American Sociological Review 53, no. 1 (1988): 94–102. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Tom W. “2001 National Gun Policy Survey of the National Opinion Research Center: Research Findings.” National Opinion Research Center. December 2001. http://www.norc.org/PDFs/publications/SmithT_Nat_Gun_Policy_2001.pdf.Google Scholar
Spector, Joseph. “Federal Court Upholds NY SAFE Act.” Democrat & Chronicle. October 20, 2015. http://www.democratandchronicle.com/story/news/2015/10/19/new-york-safe-act-court-appeals-ruling/74224108/.Google Scholar
Stroud, Angela. “GOOD GUYS WITH GUNS: Hegemonic Masculinity and Concealed Handguns.” Gender & Society 26, no. 2 (2012): 216–38.10.1177/0891243211434612CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroud, Angela. Good Guys with Guns: The Appeal and Consequences of Concealed Carry. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Swift, Art. “Less than Half of Americans Support Stricter Gun Laws.” Gallup. October 31, 2014. http://www.gallup.com/poll/179045/less-half-americans-support-stricter-gun-laws.aspx.Google Scholar
Taylor, Jimmy D. “Gun Shows, Gun Collectors and the Story of the Gun: An Ethnographic Approach to U.S. Gun Culture.” PhD diss., The Ohio State University, 2008.Google Scholar
Thrush, Glenn, and Bogel-Burroughs, Nicholas. “Why G.O.P.-Led States Are Banning the Police from Enforcing Federal Gun Laws.” New York Times. June 18, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/18/us/missouri-federal-gun-laws.html.Google Scholar
Uggen, Christopher, and Blackstone, Amy. “Sexual Harassment as a Gendered Expression of Power.” American Sociological Review 69, no. 1 (2004): 64–92.10.1177/000312240406900105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau. “U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: New York.” 2021a. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/NY.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau. “U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Rockland County, New York.” 2021b. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/rocklandcountynewyork/PST045219.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau. “U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Westchester County, New York.” 2021c. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/westchestercountynewyork.Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau. “U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States.” 2023. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045222.Google Scholar
Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services, Criminal Justice Research Center. “Evaluation of the Virginia Exile Program: Final Report.” 2003. https://www.dcjs.virginia.gov/research/documents/exileFinal.pdf.Google Scholar
Vizzard, William J. “The Current and Future State of Gun Policy in the United States.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 104, no. 4 (2014): 879–904.Google Scholar
Weaver, Teri. “NY State Police Boss: No Solution Yet for Background Checks on Ammo Sales, ‘If There Is One’.” syracuse.com. February 26, 2015a. http://www.syracuse.com/news/index.ssf/2015/02/ny_state_police_boss_no_solution_yet_for_background_checks_on_ammo_sales_if_ther.html#incart_story_package.Google Scholar
Weaver, Teri. “DeFrancisco Now No. 2 in NY Senate.” syracuse.com. July 30, 2015b. http://www.syracuse.com/state/index.ssf/2015/07/defrancisco_now_no_2_in_ny_senate.html.Google Scholar
House, White. “FACT SHEET: Biden-Harris Administration Announces Initial Actions to Address the Gun Violence Public Health Epidemic.” The White House. April 8, 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/04/07/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-announces-initial-actions-to-address-the-gun-violence-public-health-epidemic/.Google Scholar
Wilson, Joshua C. “Sustaining the State: Legal Consciousness and the Construction of Legality in Competing Abortion Activists’ Narratives.” Law & Social Inquiry 36, no. 2 (2011): 455–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.2011.01238.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yamane, David. “The Sociology of U.S. Gun Culture.” Sociology Compass 11, no. 7 (2017): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, Kathryne M. “Everyone Knows the Game: Legal Consciousness in the Hawaiian Cockfight.” Law & Society Review 48, no. 3 (2014): 499–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12094.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

CASES CITED

District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008).Google Scholar

STATUTES CITED

New York Secure Ammunition and Firearms Enforcement (SAFE) Act, Act of Jan. 15, 2013, ch. 1, 2013 N.Y. Laws 1, amended by Act of Mar. 29, 2013, ch. 57, pt. FF, 2013 N.Y. Laws 290, 389.Google Scholar