Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T05:27:15.582Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Virtue and the Law: The Good Moral Character Requirement in Occupational Licensing, Bar Regulation, and Immigration Proceedings

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 December 2018

Deborah L. Rhode
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Character plays a crucial role in US law. This article explores flaws in how moral character requirements determine who can work in licensed occupations, who can practice law, and who can immigrate to the United States or become a citizen. Section I summarizes psychological research on character, which raises questions about a central legal premise that individuals have a settled disposition capable of accurately predicting their behavior independent of situational influences. Section II examines the role of moral character as an employment credential. Almost a third of the workforce is covered by licensing laws that typically require proof of good character and often unjustly penalize the seventy million Americans with criminal records. Section III examines the idiosyncratic and inconsistent application of moral character requirements for lawyers. Section IV focuses on similar flaws in immigration contexts. Section V identifies reform strategies to improve the fairness of character-related decisions in the law.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 43 , Issue 3 , Summer 2018 , pp. 1027 - 1058
Copyright
Copyright © American Bar Foundation, 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Allport, Gordon W. Personality: A Psychological Interpretation. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1937.Google Scholar
American Bar Association (ABA). Standards for Imposing Lawyer Sanctions. Chicago: ABA, 2005.Google Scholar
Appelbaum, Binyamin. “Out of Trouble, but Criminal Records Keep Men Out of Work.” New York Times, February 28, 2015.Google Scholar
Auerbach, Jerold S. Unequal Justice: Lawyers and Social Change in Modern America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.Google Scholar
Bacchus, Lorraine, Mezery, Gilliam, and Bewley, Susan. “Domestic Violence: Prevalence in Pregnant Women and Associations with Physical and Psychological Health.” European Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 113 (2004): 6–11.Google Scholar
Bar Examiner. “An Answer to the Problem of the Bootlegger's Son.” Bar Examiner 1 (1932a): 100–10.Google Scholar
Bar Examiner. “Character Examination of Candidates.” Bar Examiner 1 (1932b): 63–77.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Nina. “After Governor's Pardon, an Immigrant Is Sworn In as a Citizen.” New York Times, May 29, 2010.Google Scholar
Bernstein-Baker, Judith. “Citizenship in a Restrictionist Era: The Mixed Messages of Federal Policies.” Temple Political and Civil Rights Law Review 16 (2007): 367–85.Google Scholar
Black's Law Dictionary. 5th ed. Saint Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1979.Google Scholar
Blumstein, Alfred, and Nakamura, Kiminori. “Redemption in an Era of Widespread Criminal Background Checks.” National Institute of Justice Journal 263 (2009): 10–17.Google Scholar
Bowers, Kenneth S. “Situationism in Psychology: An Analysis and a Critique.” Psychological Review 80, no. 5 (1973): 307–36.Google Scholar
Brown, Ralph S. Jr., and Fassett, John D. “Loyalty Tests for Admission to the Bar.” University of Chicago Law Review 20 (1953): 480–508.Google Scholar
Brown, Roger. Social Psychology. New York: Macmillan, 1986.Google Scholar
Bush, President George W. 2004. “State of the Union Address,” January 20, 2004. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Butterfield, Fox. “Freed from Prison, but Still Paying a Penalty.” New York Times, December 29, 2002.Google Scholar
Camarena, Ignascio G. II., “Domestically Violent Attorneys: Resuscitating and Transforming a Dusty, Old Punitive Approach to Attorney Discipline into a Viable Prescription for Rehabilitation.” Golden Gate University Law Review 31 (2001): 155–91.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Dick M. II, Knepper, Lisa, Erickson, Angela C., and Ross, John K. License to Work: A National Study of Burdens from Occupational Licensing. Arlington, VA: Institute for Justice, 2012. http://ij.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/licensetowork1.pdf.Google Scholar
Chroust, Anton-Hermann. Rise of the Legal Profession in America. Oklahoma City: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965.Google Scholar
Clemens, Aaron M. “Facing the Klieg Lights: Understanding the ‘Good Moral Character’ Examination for Bar Applicants.” Akron Law Review 40 (2007): 255–310.Google Scholar
Cohen, Patricia. “Horse Rub? Where's Your License?” New York Times, June 18, 2016, B1–B5.Google Scholar
Cohen, Taya R., Panter, A. T., Turan, Nazli, Morse, Lily, and Kim, Yeonjeong. “Moral Character in the Workplace.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 107, no. 5 (2014): 943–63.Google Scholar
Cook, Melissa. “Banished for Minor Crimes: The Aggravated Felony Provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act as a Human Rights Violation.” Boston College Third World Law Journal 23 (2003): 293–329.Google Scholar
Council on Licensure Enforcement and Regulation (CLEAR). CLEAR's Mission. 2016. http://www.clearhq.org/page-1720466.Google Scholar
Craddock, Larry. “‘Good Moral Character’ as a Licensing Standard.” Journal of the National Association of Administrative Law Judiciary 28, no. 2 (2008): 450–69.Google Scholar
Darley, John M., and Batson, C. Daniel. “‘From Jerusalem to Jericho’: A Study of Situational and Dispositional Variables in Helping Behavior.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 27, no. 1 (1973): 100–08.Google Scholar
Department of the Treasury, Office of Economic Policy et al. Occupational Licensing: A Framework for Policymakers. Washington, DC: White House, 2015.Google Scholar
Diamond, Jeremy. “Trump Orders Construction of Border Wall, Boosts Deportation Force.” CNN, January 15, 2017. http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/25/politics/donald-trump-build-wall-immigration-executive-orders/.Google Scholar
Doris, John M. Lack of Character: Personality & Moral Behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Douglas, Walter C. Jr., “The Pennsylvania System Governing Admission to the Bar.” Rep ABA 54 (1929): 701–10.Google Scholar
Endler, Norman S., and Magnusson, David. “Toward an Interactional Psychology of Personality.” Psychological Bulletin 83, no. 5 (1976): 956–74.Google Scholar
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. “Notice No. N-915, Policy Statement on the Issue of Conviction Records under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, February 4, 1987.” Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1987.Google Scholar
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. “EEOC Enforcement Guidance No. 915.002, Consideration of Arrest and Conviction Records in Employment Decisions Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.” Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2012. http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/guidance/arrest_conviction.cfm.Google Scholar
Foreman, James Jr., Locking Up Our Own: Crime and Punishment in Black America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017.Google Scholar
Fragomen, Justin T. “Immigration and Nationality Act of 1981.” International Migration Review 16 (1992): 206.Google Scholar
Friedman, Lawrence M. “Freedom of Contract and Occupational Licensing 1890–1910: A Legal and Social Study.” California Law Review 53, no. 1 (1965): 487–534.Google Scholar
Funder, David C. “Explaining Traits.” Psychological Inquiry 5, no. 2 (1994): 125–27.Google Scholar
Funder, David C. “Towards a Resolution of the Personality Triad: Persons, Situations, and Behaviors.” Journal of Research in Personality 40 (2006): 21–34.Google Scholar
Futterman, Mathew. “Nightmare Eases for Immigrant.” New Jersey Star-Ledger, April 6, 1999.Google Scholar
Gee, Lisa Christensen, Gardner, Matthew, and Wiehe, Meg. Undocumented Immigrants' State & Local Tax Contributions. Washington, DC: Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy, 2017.Google Scholar
Gellhorn, Walter. Individual Freedom and Governmental Restraints. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1956.Google Scholar
Gellhorn, Walter. “The Abuse of Occupational Licensing.” University of Chicago Law Review 44, no. 1 (1976): 6–27.Google Scholar
Gilb, Corinne Lathrop. Hidden Hierarchies: The Professions and Government. New York: Harper and Row, 1966.Google Scholar
Gomez, Alan. “New Fight for Immigrants.” USA Today, July 2, 2012.Google Scholar
Harman, Gilbert. “Moral Philosophy Meets Social Psychology: Virtue Ethics and the Fundamental Attribution Error.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 99 (1999): 315–31.Google Scholar
Hebenton, Bill, and Thomas, Terry. Criminal Records: State, Citizen and the Politics of Protection. Avebury, UK: Avebury, 1993.Google Scholar
Hing, Bill Ong. “The Failure of Prosecutorial Discretion and the Deportation of Oscar Martinez—Part I.” Bender's Immigration Bulletin, October 15, 2013.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. US: Deportation Splits Families. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2009.Google Scholar
Hunt, James W., Bowers, James E., and Miller, Neal. Laws, Licenses, and the Offenders' Right to Work: A Study of State Laws Restricting the Occupational Licensing of Former Offenders. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse on Offender Employment Restrictions, 1974.Google Scholar
Immigrant Legal Resource Center. Naturalization and U.S. Citizenship: The Essential Legal Guide. San Francisco, CA: Immigrant Legal Resource Center, 2014.Google Scholar
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Deportation of Aliens Claiming U.S.-Born Children, First Half, Calendar Year 2015. August 1, 2016. Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, 2016a.Google Scholar
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Deportation of Aliens Claiming U.S.-Born Children, Second Half, Calendar Year 2015. August 1, 2016. Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, 2016b.Google Scholar
Johnson, W. B., and Campbell, C. D. “Character and Fitness Requirements for Professional Psychologists: Are There Any?” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 33 (2002): 46–53.Google Scholar
Kalvin, Harry Jr., and Roscoe, Steffen. “The Bar Admission Cases: An Unfinished Debate Between Justice Harlan and Justice Black.” Legal Transition 21 (1961): 155–78.Google Scholar
Kaye, David H. Science in Evidence. New York: LexisNexis, 1997.Google Scholar
Kennedy, John F. A Nation of Immigrants. New York: Harper Perennial, 2008.Google Scholar
Kessler, Glenn. “Trump's Claim That Obama First ‘Identified’ the 7 Countries in His Travel Ban.” Washington Post, February 7, 2017. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2017/02/07/trumps-claim-that-obama-first-identified-the-seven-countries-in-his-travel-ban/?utm_term=.77f17c3a2d1c.Google Scholar
Kleiner, Morris M. Licensing Occupations: Ensuring Quality or Restricting Competition? Kalamazoo, MI: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 2006.Google Scholar
Kleiner, Morris M. The Hamilton Project, Reforming Occupational Licensing Policies. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2015.Google Scholar
Knight, Meribah. “Deportation's Brief Adios and Prolonged Anguish.” New York Times, May 8, 2010.Google Scholar
Lapp, Kevin. “Reforming the Good Moral Character Requirement for U.S. Citizenship.” Indiana Law Journal 87, no. 4 (2012): 1571–1637.Google Scholar
Latané, Bibb, and Rodin, Judith. “A Lady in Distress: Inhibiting Effects of Friends and Strangers on Bystander Intervention.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 5 (1969): 189–202.Google Scholar
Lawfare. “Litigation Documents and Resources Related to Trump Executive Order on Immigration.” 2017. https://lawfareblog.com/litigation-documents-resources-related-trump-executive-order-immigration.Google Scholar
Levin, Leslie C., Zozula, Christine, and Siegelman, Peter. “The Questionable Character of the Bar's Character and Fitness Inquiry.” Law and Social Inquiry 40 (2015): 51–85.Google Scholar
Lickona, Thomas. “Character Education: Seven Crucial Issues.” Action in Teacher Education 20, no. 4 (1999): 77–84.Google Scholar
Liem, Natalie. “Mean What You Say, Say What You Mean: Defining the Aggravated Felony Deportation Grounds to Target More than Aggravated Felons.” Florida Law Review 59 (2007): 1071–95.Google Scholar
Lipton, Eric. “As More Are Deported, a '96 Law Faces Scrutiny.” New York Times, December 21, 1999.Google Scholar
Maclachian, Malcolm. “Lawyer Once Illegally in US Has Thriving Practice.” San Francisco Daily Journal, March 29, 2017, A1.Google Scholar
Marks, Dana Leigh, and Noonan Slavin, Denise. “A View Through the Looking Glass: How Crimes Appear from the Immigration Court Perspective.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 39, no. 1 (2012): 91–119.Google Scholar
Mauro, Tony. “From Felony Conviction to Bar Exam.” National Law Journal, October 6, 2014.Google Scholar
May, Bruce E. “The Character Component of Occupational Licensing Laws: A Continuing Barrier to the Ex-Felon's Employment Opportunities.” North Dakota Law Review 71 (1995): 187–210.Google Scholar
McCrae, Robert R., and Costa, Paul T. Jr., “The Stability of Personality: Observations and Evaluations.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 3 (1994): 173–75.Google Scholar
Medina, Jennifer. “Too Scared to Report Sexual Abuse. The Fear: Deportation.” New York Times, April 30, 2017.Google Scholar
Menses, Adriane. “The Deportation of Lawful Permanent Residents for Old and Minor Crimes: Restoring Judicial Review, Ending Retroactivity, and Recognizing Deportation as Punishment.” Scholar 14 (2012): 767–867.Google Scholar
Milgram, Stanley. Obedience to Authority. New York: Harper & Row, 1974.Google Scholar
Mischel, Walter. Personality and Assessment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1968.Google Scholar
Mischel, Walter. “Personality Coherence and Dispositions in a Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS) Approach.” In The Coherence of Personality: Social-Cognitive Bases of Consistency, edited by Cervone, Daniel and Shoda, Yuichi, 37–60. New York: Guilford Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Mischel, Walter, and Shoda, Yuichi. “A Cognitive-Affective System Theory of Personality: Reconceptualizing Situations, Dispositions, Dynamics, and Invariance in Personality Structure.” Psychological Review 102, no. 2 (1995): 246–68.Google Scholar
Monin, Benoit, and Jordan, Alexander H. “The Dynamic Moral Self: A Social Psychological Perspective.” In Personality, Identity, and Character: Explorations in Moral Psychology, edited by Narváez, Darcia and Lapsley, Daniel K., 341–54. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Mullings, Sandra J. “Employment of Ex-Offenders: The Time Has Come for a True Antidiscrimination Statute.” Syracuse Law Review 64 (2014): 261–95.Google Scholar
National Conference of Bar Examiners. Comprehensive Guide. Madison, WI: National Conference of Bar Examiners, 2015.Google Scholar
National Council of State Governments, Justice Center. “National Inventory of the Collateral Consequences of Conviction.” 2016. https://niccc.csgjusticecenter.org/.Google Scholar
National Employment Law Project. “Ban the Box Is a Fair Chance for Workers with Records” Fact Sheet. New York: National Employment Law Project, April 2017.Google Scholar
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. “Persistent Fear and Anxiety Can Affect Young Children's Learning and Development.” Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Center on the Developing Child, 2010.Google Scholar
Noam, Gil G. “Reconceptualizing Maturity: The Search for Deeper Meaning.” In Development and Vulnerability in Close Relationships, edited by Noam, Gil G. and Fischer, Kurt. W., 135–72. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1996.Google Scholar
Obbie, Mark. “In Search of the Felon-Friendly Workplace.” New York Times, June 26, 2016.Google Scholar
Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Papke, David Ray. “The Watergate Lawyers All Passed the Character and Fitness Test.” Columbia University Forum 2 (1973): 15–18.Google Scholar
Pashman, Manya Brachear. “Immigrant Women Fear Deportation Under Trump If They Report Domestic Abuse, Advocates Say.” Chicago Tribune, June 26, 2017.Google Scholar
Patterson, Steve. “In Federal Court, Attorneys Spar Over St. Augustine Artist Restrictions, First Amendment.” St. Augustine Record, August 21, 2015.Google Scholar
Pérez-Peña, Richard. “Contrary to Trump's Claims, Immigrants Are Less Likely to Commit Crimes.” New York Times, January 26, 2017.Google Scholar
Persichetti, Albert S. “Good Moral Character as a Requirement for Naturalization.” Temple Law Quarterly 22 (1948): 182–94.Google Scholar
Peterson, Christopher, and Seligman, Martin E. P. Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Pharr, Clyde. The Theodosian Code and Novels and the Sirmondian Constitutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952.Google Scholar
Pinaire, Brian K., Heumann, Milton J., and Lerman, Jennifer. “Barred from the Bar: The Process, Politics, and Policy Implications of Discipline for Attorney Felony Offenders.” Virginia Journal of Social Policy and Law 13 (2006): 290–330.Google Scholar
Pobjecky, Thomas Arthur. “Beyond Rehabilitation: Permanent Exclusion from the Practice of Law.” Bar Examiner 76 (2007): 6, 10.Google Scholar
Reentry Policy Organization. Report of the Re-Entry Policy Council: Charting the Safe and Successful Return of Prisoners to the Community. New York: Reentry Policy Organization, 2003.Google Scholar
Rhodan, Maya. “ICE Arrests of Suspected Undocumented Immigrants Up Nearly 40% Compared to Last Year.” Time, May 29, 2017. http://time.com/4782643/ice-arrests-2017-donald-trump-immigration/.Google Scholar
Rhode, Deborah L. “Moral Character as a Professional Credential.” Yale Law Journal, 94 (1985): 491–603.Google Scholar
Rhode, Deborah L. Adultery: Infidelity and the Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Rhode, Deborah L., Luban, David, Cummings, Scott L., and Engstrom, Nora F. Legal Ethics. 7th ed. Saint Paul, MN: Foundation Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Rich, Eric. “Deportations Soar Under Rigid Law.” Hartford Courant, October 8, 2000.Google Scholar
Roberts, Brent W., and Pomerantz, Eva M. “On Traits, Situations, and Their Integration: A Developmental Perspective.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 8, no. 4 (2004): 402–16.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, Michelle Natividad, and Avery, Beth. “Unlicensed & Untapped: Removing Barriers to State Occupational Licenses for People with Records.” National Employment Law Project. 2016. http://www.nelp.org/publication/unlicensed-untapped-removing-barriers-state-occupational-licenses/.Google Scholar
Rosenbloom, Rachel E. “U.S. Must Rethink Deportation Laws.” Albany Times Union, March 29, 2007.Google Scholar
Ross, Lee, and Nisbett, Richard. The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology. London: McGraw Hill, 1991.Google Scholar
Rumbaut, Rubén G., and Ewing, Walter A. The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates Among Native and Foreign-Born Men. Washington, DC: American Immigration Law Foundation, 2007.Google Scholar
Saunders, George. “Trump Days.” New Yorker, July 11, 18, 2016.Google Scholar
Sawicki, Nadia N. “Character, Competence, and the Principles of Medical Discipline.” Journal of Health Care Law and Policy 13, no. 2 (2010): 285–323.Google Scholar
Schochet, Leila. “Trump's Immigration Policies Are Harming American Children.” Center for American Progress, July 31, 2017.Google Scholar
Seville, Lisa Riordan. “Got a Criminal Record? Please Go Away.” Crime Report, March 21, 2011.Google Scholar
Shafroth, Will. “Character Investigation—An Essential Element of the Bar Admission Process.” Bar Examiner 18 (1949): 194, 198.Google Scholar
Shannon, Sarah, Uggen, Christopher, Thompson, Melissa, Schnittker, Jason, and Massoglia, Michael. “Growth in the U.S. Ex-Felon and Ex-Prisoner Population, 1948 to 2010.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America, Washington, DC, 2011.Google Scholar
Sherlock, Ann. “Deportation of Aliens and Article 8 ECHR.” European Law Review 23 (1998): 62–75.Google Scholar
Silva, Lahny R. “In Search of a Second Chance: Channeling BMW v. Gore and Reconsidering Occupational Licensing Restrictions.” Kansas Law Review, 61 (2012): 495–545.Google Scholar
Solomon, Dana Beth. “Immigrant Lawyer Facing Big Challenges.” San Francisco Daily Journal, January 7, 2015.Google Scholar
Strange, Steven L. “Private Consensual Sexual Conduct and the ‘Good Moral Character’ Requirement of the Immigration and Nationality Act.” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 14 (1975): 357–81.Google Scholar
“Tax Evasion Aggravated by High Lifestyle Nets Year-Long Suspension for Two Lawyers.” Lawyers Manual of Professional Conduct 26 (2010): 14.Google Scholar
Thompson, Anthony C. Releasing Prisoners, Redeeming Communities: Reentry, Race, and Politics. New York: New York University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Thrush, Glenn. “Trump's Revised Travel Ban Spares Iraqis.” New York Times, March 6, 2017.Google Scholar
Time Staff. “Here's Donald Trump's Presidential Announcement Speech.” Time, June 16, 2015. http://time.com/3923128/donald-trump-announcement-speech/.Google Scholar
Trump, President Donald J. “Executive Order: Border Security and Immigration Enforcement Improvements.” January 25, 2017. Washington, DC: White House, 2017a.Google Scholar
Trump, President Donald J. “Executive Order: Enhancing Public Safety in the Interior of the United States.” Section 5, January 25, 2017. Washington, DC: White House, 2017b.Google Scholar
Trump, President Donald J. “Executive Order: Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States.” January 27, 2017. Washington, DC: White House, 2017c.Google Scholar
Trump Pence. “Donald J. Trump Statement on Preventing Muslim Immigration.” December 7, 2015. http://www.academia.edu/29787743/DONALD_J._TRUMP_STATEMENT_ON_PREVENTING_MUSLIM_IMMIGRATION.Google Scholar
UK Border Agency. Guide: Naturalization as a British Citizen—A Guide for Applicants. London: Home Office, 2010.Google Scholar
Vega, Tanzina. “Out of Prison and Out of Work: Jobs Out of Reach for Former Inmates.” CNN Money, October 30, 2012. http://money.cnn.com/2015/10/30/news/economy/former-inmates-unemployed.Google Scholar
Weissbourd, Rick. “Moral Teachers, Moral Students.” Educational Leadership 60, no. 6 (2003): 6–11.Google Scholar
Yang, Min, Wong, S. C., and Coid, J. “The Efficacy of Violence Prediction: A Meta-Analytic Comparison of Nine Risk Assessment Tools.” Psychology Bulletin 136, no. 5 (2010): 740–67.Google Scholar
Anastaplo, In re, 366 U.S. 82 (1961).Google Scholar
Application of Cassidy, 51 N.Y. S.2d 202 (N.Y. App. Div. 1944), aff'd, 73 N.E.2d 41 (N.Y. 1947).Google Scholar
Application of J. Norman Stone, 288 P.2d 767, 771 (Wyo. 1955), cert. denied, 352 U.S. 815 (1956).Google Scholar
Boudreau, In re, 815 So.2d 76 (La. 2002).Google Scholar
Briedis, In re, 238 F. Supp. 149 (N.D. Ill. 1965).Google Scholar
Capozzi, In re, 289 N.Y.S. 869, 873 (Sup. Ct. Onondaga County, 1936).Google Scholar
Dittman v. California, 191 F.3d 1020 (9th Cir. 1999).Google Scholar
El v. Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, 479 F.3d 232 (3d Cir. 2007).Google Scholar
Faddah v INS, 553 F.2d 491 (5th Cir. 1977).Google Scholar
Florida Bar v. Kay, 232 So.2d 378 (Fla. 1970), cert. denied, 400 U.S. 956 (1970).Google Scholar
Florida Bar v. Liberman, 43 So.3d 36 (Fla. 2010) (disbarment).Google Scholar
Florida Board of Bar Examiners re Question as to Whether Undocumented Immigrants Are Eligible for Admission to Florida Bar, 134 So.3d 432 (Fla. 2014).Google Scholar
Garcia, In re, 315 P.3d 117 (Ca. 2014).Google Scholar
Glass, In re, 58 Cal. 4th 500 (2014).Google Scholar
Grunbaum v. District Director, CIS, No. 10–10147, 2012 WL 2359966 (E.D. Mich. May 21, 2012).Google Scholar
Hallinan v. Committee of Bar Examiners, 421 P.2d 76 (Cal. 1966).Google Scholar
Higbie, In re, 6 Cal.3d 562, 493 P.2d 97 (Cal. 1972).Google Scholar
Hopp, In re, 179 F. 561, 562 (E.D. Wis. 1910).Google Scholar
Isserman, In re, 140 A. 253 (N.J. 1928).Google Scholar
Jordan v. de George, 341 U.S. 223 (1951) (Jackson, J. dissenting).Google Scholar
Kindschi, In re, 319 P.2d 824 (Wash. 1958).Google Scholar
Konigsberg v. State Bar of California, 353 U.S. 252 (1957).Google Scholar
Lamb, In re, 776 P.2d. 765 (Cal. Sup. Ct. 1989).Google Scholar
Lennon v. INS, 527 F.2d 187, 189–90 (1975).Google Scholar
Lewis, In re, 651 S.E.2d 729 (Ga. 2007).Google Scholar
McLaughlin v. Board of Medical Examiners, 35 Cal. App. 3d 1010 (1973).Google Scholar
Nagy, In re, 3 F.2d 77 (S.D. Tex. 1924).Google Scholar
Oklahoma, State of, ex rel. Oklahoma Bar Association v. Smith, 246 P.3d 1090 (Okla. 2011).Google Scholar
Petition for Naturalization of O—N—, 233 F. Supp. 504 (S.D. N.Y. 1964).Google Scholar
Petition for Naturalization of Orphanidis, 178 F. Supp. 872, 874 (N.D. W. Va. 1959).Google Scholar
Petition for Naturalization of Russo, In re, 259 F. Supp. 230, 232 (S.D. N.Y. 1966).Google Scholar
Petition of Donath, No. 8753 (D. N.J. 1953), reported in 39 Cornell Law Quarterly 478 (1953).Google Scholar
Petition of Naturalization of da Silva, 140 F. Supp. 596 (D. N.J. 1956).Google Scholar
Petition of Naturalization of Johnson, In re, 292 F. Supp. 381 (E.D. N.Y. 1968).Google Scholar
Petition of R…, 56 F. Supp. 969 (D. Mass. 1944).Google Scholar
Petitions of Naturalization of F-G-and E-E-G, 137 F. Supp. 782 (S.D. N. Y. 1956).Google Scholar
Petropoulos v. Department of Real Estate, 142 Cal. App. 4th 554 (2006).Google Scholar
Schmidt, In re, 289 N.Y.S.2d 89 (Sup. Ct. Duchess County 1968).Google Scholar
Schware v. Board of Bar Examiners of New Mexico, 353 U.S. 232, 239 (1957).Google Scholar
Soto-Lopez v. New York City Civil Service Commission, 713 F. Supp. 677 (S.D.N.Y. 1989).Google Scholar
Spenser, In re, 22 Fed. Cas. 921, 921 (C.C.D. Or. 1878).Google Scholar
Summers, In re, 325 U.S. 561 (1945).Google Scholar
United States v. Gerstein, 119 N.E. 922 (1918).Google Scholar
United States v. Pacheco, 225 F.3d 148 (2d Cir. 2000).Google Scholar
United States ex rel. Iorio v. Day, 34 F.2d 920 (2d Cir. 1929).Google Scholar
Velasquez v. Reno, 37 F. Supp. 2d 663 (D.N.J. 1999).Google Scholar
Wallace, In re, 19 S.W.2d 625 (Mo. 1929).Google Scholar
Weissbuch v. Board of Medical Examiners, 41 Cal. App. 3d 924 (1974).Google Scholar
Windham v. Board of Medical Quality Assurance, 104 Cal. App. 3d 461 (1980).Google Scholar
Wood, In re, 358 N.E. 128, 133 (Ind. 1976).Google Scholar
California Board of Chiropractic Examiners. Disciplinary Actions Fiscal Year 2015–2016 (2015–2016). http://www.chiro.ca.gov/enforcement/actions.shtml.Google Scholar
Consumer Affairs and Business Regulation, 269 Code of Massachusetts Regulations (CMR) 3.00: Individual Licensure (2017). http://www.mass.gov/ocabr/licensee/dpl-boards/mt/regulations/269-cmr/269-cmr-300.html.Google Scholar
Georgia Code Annotated § 84-23125 (1975).Google Scholar
Immigration and Nationality Act, Pub. L. No. 82–1414 § 101, 66 Stat. 163, 172 (1952).Google Scholar
Immigration and Nationality Act § 237(a) (2006).Google Scholar
Iowa Alcoholic Beverages Division. Licensing Laws and Requirements (2017). https://abd.iowa.gov/licensing/licensing-laws-requirements.Google Scholar
Maine Revised Statute Annotated Title 32 § 3271 (West, 1991).Google Scholar
Minnesota Statute Annotated § 147.02 (West, 1989).Google Scholar
Model Rules of Prof'l Conduct R. 8.4 (b) (2015).Google Scholar
Naturalization Bill. Annals of Congress, 4:1026 (1794).Google Scholar
New York Correction Law § 752 (McKinney, 1998).Google Scholar
New York Executive Law § 296 (McKinney, 1998).Google Scholar
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). 8 U.S.C. § 1621 (1996).Google Scholar
Pub. L. No. 101–649 § 501(a), 104 Stat. 4978, 5048 (1990).Google Scholar
Pub. L. No. 100–690, 102 Stat. 4181, 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a) (2014).Google Scholar
Rule of Naturalization. Annals of Congress, 1:114 (1790).Google Scholar
Santa Barbara, City of. Massage Permits (2016). http://www.santabarbaraca.gov/business/license/massage.asp.Google Scholar
8 C.F.R. § 316.10(a)(2) (2013).Google Scholar
8 C.F.R. § 316.10(b)(3) (2013).Google Scholar
8 U.S.C. § 1182 (2013).Google Scholar
8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(A)(i) (2013).Google Scholar
8 U.S.C. §§ 1255, 1375c (2008).Google Scholar
8 U.S.C. § 1427(a), (e) (2005).Google Scholar
Anastaplo, In re, 366 U.S. 82 (1961).Google Scholar
Application of Cassidy, 51 N.Y. S.2d 202 (N.Y. App. Div. 1944), aff'd, 73 N.E.2d 41 (N.Y. 1947).Google Scholar
Application of J. Norman Stone, 288 P.2d 767, 771 (Wyo. 1955), cert. denied, 352 U.S. 815 (1956).Google Scholar
Boudreau, In re, 815 So.2d 76 (La. 2002).Google Scholar
Briedis, In re, 238 F. Supp. 149 (N.D. Ill. 1965).Google Scholar
Capozzi, In re, 289 N.Y.S. 869, 873 (Sup. Ct. Onondaga County, 1936).Google Scholar
Dittman v. California, 191 F.3d 1020 (9th Cir. 1999).Google Scholar
El v. Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, 479 F.3d 232 (3d Cir. 2007).Google Scholar
Faddah v INS, 553 F.2d 491 (5th Cir. 1977).Google Scholar
Florida Bar v. Kay, 232 So.2d 378 (Fla. 1970), cert. denied, 400 U.S. 956 (1970).Google Scholar
Florida Bar v. Liberman, 43 So.3d 36 (Fla. 2010) (disbarment).Google Scholar
Florida Board of Bar Examiners re Question as to Whether Undocumented Immigrants Are Eligible for Admission to Florida Bar, 134 So.3d 432 (Fla. 2014).Google Scholar
Garcia, In re, 315 P.3d 117 (Ca. 2014).Google Scholar
Glass, In re, 58 Cal. 4th 500 (2014).Google Scholar
Grunbaum v. District Director, CIS, No. 10–10147, 2012 WL 2359966 (E.D. Mich. May 21, 2012).Google Scholar
Hallinan v. Committee of Bar Examiners, 421 P.2d 76 (Cal. 1966).Google Scholar
Higbie, In re, 6 Cal.3d 562, 493 P.2d 97 (Cal. 1972).Google Scholar
Hopp, In re, 179 F. 561, 562 (E.D. Wis. 1910).Google Scholar
Isserman, In re, 140 A. 253 (N.J. 1928).Google Scholar
Jordan v. de George, 341 U.S. 223 (1951) (Jackson, J. dissenting).Google Scholar
Kindschi, In re, 319 P.2d 824 (Wash. 1958).Google Scholar
Konigsberg v. State Bar of California, 353 U.S. 252 (1957).Google Scholar
Lamb, In re, 776 P.2d. 765 (Cal. Sup. Ct. 1989).Google Scholar
Lennon v. INS, 527 F.2d 187, 189–90 (1975).Google Scholar
Lewis, In re, 651 S.E.2d 729 (Ga. 2007).Google Scholar
McLaughlin v. Board of Medical Examiners, 35 Cal. App. 3d 1010 (1973).Google Scholar
Nagy, In re, 3 F.2d 77 (S.D. Tex. 1924).Google Scholar
Oklahoma, State of, ex rel. Oklahoma Bar Association v. Smith, 246 P.3d 1090 (Okla. 2011).Google Scholar
Petition for Naturalization of O—N—, 233 F. Supp. 504 (S.D. N.Y. 1964).Google Scholar
Petition for Naturalization of Orphanidis, 178 F. Supp. 872, 874 (N.D. W. Va. 1959).Google Scholar
Petition for Naturalization of Russo, In re, 259 F. Supp. 230, 232 (S.D. N.Y. 1966).Google Scholar
Petition of Donath, No. 8753 (D. N.J. 1953), reported in 39 Cornell Law Quarterly 478 (1953).Google Scholar
Petition of Naturalization of da Silva, 140 F. Supp. 596 (D. N.J. 1956).Google Scholar
Petition of Naturalization of Johnson, In re, 292 F. Supp. 381 (E.D. N.Y. 1968).Google Scholar
Petition of R…, 56 F. Supp. 969 (D. Mass. 1944).Google Scholar
Petitions of Naturalization of F-G-and E-E-G, 137 F. Supp. 782 (S.D. N. Y. 1956).Google Scholar
Petropoulos v. Department of Real Estate, 142 Cal. App. 4th 554 (2006).Google Scholar
Schmidt, In re, 289 N.Y.S.2d 89 (Sup. Ct. Duchess County 1968).Google Scholar
Schware v. Board of Bar Examiners of New Mexico, 353 U.S. 232, 239 (1957).Google Scholar
Soto-Lopez v. New York City Civil Service Commission, 713 F. Supp. 677 (S.D.N.Y. 1989).Google Scholar
Spenser, In re, 22 Fed. Cas. 921, 921 (C.C.D. Or. 1878).Google Scholar
Summers, In re, 325 U.S. 561 (1945).Google Scholar
United States v. Gerstein, 119 N.E. 922 (1918).Google Scholar
United States v. Pacheco, 225 F.3d 148 (2d Cir. 2000).Google Scholar
United States ex rel. Iorio v. Day, 34 F.2d 920 (2d Cir. 1929).Google Scholar
Velasquez v. Reno, 37 F. Supp. 2d 663 (D.N.J. 1999).Google Scholar
Wallace, In re, 19 S.W.2d 625 (Mo. 1929).Google Scholar
Weissbuch v. Board of Medical Examiners, 41 Cal. App. 3d 924 (1974).Google Scholar
Windham v. Board of Medical Quality Assurance, 104 Cal. App. 3d 461 (1980).Google Scholar
Wood, In re, 358 N.E. 128, 133 (Ind. 1976).Google Scholar
California Board of Chiropractic Examiners. Disciplinary Actions Fiscal Year 2015–2016 (2015–2016). http://www.chiro.ca.gov/enforcement/actions.shtml.Google Scholar
Consumer Affairs and Business Regulation, 269 Code of Massachusetts Regulations (CMR) 3.00: Individual Licensure (2017). http://www.mass.gov/ocabr/licensee/dpl-boards/mt/regulations/269-cmr/269-cmr-300.html.Google Scholar
Georgia Code Annotated § 84-23125 (1975).Google Scholar
Immigration and Nationality Act, Pub. L. No. 82–1414 § 101, 66 Stat. 163, 172 (1952).Google Scholar
Immigration and Nationality Act § 237(a) (2006).Google Scholar
Iowa Alcoholic Beverages Division. Licensing Laws and Requirements (2017). https://abd.iowa.gov/licensing/licensing-laws-requirements.Google Scholar
Maine Revised Statute Annotated Title 32 § 3271 (West, 1991).Google Scholar
Minnesota Statute Annotated § 147.02 (West, 1989).Google Scholar
Model Rules of Prof'l Conduct R. 8.4 (b) (2015).Google Scholar
Naturalization Bill. Annals of Congress, 4:1026 (1794).Google Scholar
New York Correction Law § 752 (McKinney, 1998).Google Scholar
New York Executive Law § 296 (McKinney, 1998).Google Scholar
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). 8 U.S.C. § 1621 (1996).Google Scholar
Pub. L. No. 101–649 § 501(a), 104 Stat. 4978, 5048 (1990).Google Scholar
Pub. L. No. 100–690, 102 Stat. 4181, 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a) (2014).Google Scholar
Rule of Naturalization. Annals of Congress, 1:114 (1790).Google Scholar
Santa Barbara, City of. Massage Permits (2016). http://www.santabarbaraca.gov/business/license/massage.asp.Google Scholar
8 C.F.R. § 316.10(a)(2) (2013).Google Scholar
8 C.F.R. § 316.10(b)(3) (2013).Google Scholar
8 U.S.C. § 1182 (2013).Google Scholar
8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(A)(i) (2013).Google Scholar
8 U.S.C. §§ 1255, 1375c (2008).Google Scholar
8 U.S.C. § 1427(a), (e) (2005).Google Scholar