No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
A Translocal Compromise: Adoption of Anti-corruption Reforms in East Timor
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 21 February 2025
Abstract
This article examines what happens when plural normative ideas and arrangements to address an issue reach local settings through transnational networks. Using anti-corruption reforms in East Timor as the lens, I show the diverse normative aspirations of international and local actors involved in transferring and receiving new regulatory arrangements. By proposing compromise as another possible outcome of transnational legal transfers, the study examines how compromises shape the scope and limits of adopted regulations. The anti-corruption reforms case study from East Timor allows us to identify when and how translocal compromises occur, who is part of such compromises, and how they influence the legal transfer and adoption process. Drawing on insights from comparative law, law and society, and regulation studies scholarship, the article provides a bottom-up perspective of transnational legal reforms, illustrating the entanglements of these initiatives with the local politics, conflicts, and power struggles. The findings underscore the need for more qualitative studies on legal transfers where multiple international and local actors are involved, capturing how their power struggles shape the scope and limits of regulatory arrangements that are ultimately adopted. By illustrating the interactions between local, national, and international actors, the article contributes to understanding the complexities, possibilities, and limits of transnational legal reform initiatives in specific contexts.
Keywords
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Copyright
- © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of American Bar Foundation
References
Agência Noticiosa de Timor-Leste. 2023. “Gov’t Proposed New Leaders for CAC and Institutions That Manage Oil and Minerals.” 14 September. https://en.tatoli.tl/2023/09/14/govt-proposed-new-leaders-for-cac-and-institutions-that-manage-oil-and-minerals/01/.Google Scholar
Ajani, Gianmaria. 1995. “By Chance and Prestige: Legal Transplants in Russia and Eastern Europe.” American Journal of Comparative Law 43, no. 1: 93–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajani, Gianmaria. 2007. “Transplants, Legal Borrowings and Reception.” In Encyclopedia of Law and Society, edited by David, S. Clark, 248–61. Vol. 3. London: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Almeida, Bernardo. 2017. “The Main Characteristics of the Timorese Legal System- A Practical Guide.” Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America 50, no. 2: 175–87.Google Scholar
Alter, Karen J., and Meunier, Sophie. 2006. “Nested and Overlapping Regimes in the Transatlantic Banana Trade Dispute.” Journal of European Public Policy 13, no. 3: 362–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anand, V., Ashforth, B. E., and Joshi Joshi, M.. 2004. “Business as Usual: The Acceptance and Perpetuation of Corruption in Organizations.” Academy of Management Executive 18, no. 2: 39–53.Google Scholar
Asia Foundation. 2022. “Public Perception Survey.” https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Initial-Findings-of-Timor-Leste-Tatoli-Public-Perception-Survey-2022.pdf.Google Scholar
Antons, Christoph. 2003. Law and Development in East and South-East Asia. New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Antons, Christoph. 2007. “Law Reform in the ‘Developmental States’ of East and Southeast Asia: From the Asian Crisis to September 11, 2001 and Beyond.” In Antons and Gessner, 81–104.Google Scholar
Antons, Christoph, and Gessner, Volkmar. 2007. Globalisation and Resistance: Law Reform in Asia since the Crisis. Onati, Spain: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Banerjee, Subhabrata Bobby. 2011. “Voices of the Governed: Towards a Theory of the Translocal.” Organization 18, no. 3: 323–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benner, Tom. 2013. “East Timor Mismanagement.” Al Jazeera, 19 October. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/10/19/mismanagement-highlighted-in-east-timor.Google Scholar
Berger, Tobias. 2017. Global Norms and Local Courts: Translating the Rule of Law in Bangladesh. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkowitz, Daniel, Pistor, Katharina, and Richard, Jean-Francois. 2003. “The Transplant Effect.” American Journal of Comparative Law 51: 163204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bexley, A. 2017. “The Geracao Foun and Indonesia: Exclusion, Belonging and the Nation-State.” In Fieldwork in Timor-Leste: Understanding Social Change through Practice, edited by Nygaard-Christensen, M. and Bexley, A., 99–125. Oxford: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press.Google Scholar
Block-Lieb, Susan, and Halliday, Terence C.. 2017. Global Lawmakers: International Organizations in the Crafting of World Markets. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blundo, Giorgio. 2006. “Dealing with the Local State: The Informal Privatization of Street-level Bureaucracies in Senegal.” Development and Change 37, no. 4: 799–819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyle, Elizabeth Heger, and Meyer, John W.. 2002. “Modern Law as a Secularized and Global Model: Implications for the Sociology of Law.” In Dezalay and Garth 2002, 65–96.Google Scholar
Boyle, Elizabeth Heger, Songora, Fortunata, and Foss, Gail. 2001. “International Discourse and Local Politics: Anti-Female-Genital-Cutting Laws in Egypt, Tanzania, and the United States.” Social Problems 48, no. 4: 524–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braithwaite, John, and Drahos, Peter. 2000. Global Business Regulation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cairns, John W. 2012. “Watson, Walton, and the History of Legal Transplants.” Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 41: 637–96.Google Scholar
Canfield, Matthew C., Dehm, Julia, and Fassi, Marisa. 2021. “Translocal Legalities: Local Encounters with Transnational Law.” Transnational Legal Theory 12, no. 3: 335–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carl, Sabine. 2018. “The History and Evolution of the Ombudsman Mode.” In Research Handbook on the Ombudsman, edited by Hertogh, M. and Kirkham, R., 17–33. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Carruthers, Bruce G., and Halliday, Terence C.. 2009. Bankrupt: Global Lawmaking and Systemic Financial Crisis. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Chêne, Marie. 2008. “Donor Responses to Corruption in Deteriorating Governance Environments.” U4 Anti-corruption Resource Centre, 25 April. https://www.u4.no/publications/donor-responses-to-corruption-in-deteriorating-governance-environments.pdf.Google Scholar
Cheng, Christine S., and Zaum, Dominik, 2012. “Selling the Peace?: Corruption and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding.” In Corruption and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding, edited by Zaum, Dominik and Cheng, Christine, 1–25. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Chin, Gregory and Qadir, Fahimul. 2012. “Rising States, Rising Donors and the Global Aid Regime.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 25, no. 4: 493–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crisis Group Asia Briefing. 2011. “Timor Leste’s Veterans: An Unfinished Struggle?” Crisis Group Asia, 18 November. https://www.crisisgroup.org/sites/default/files/b129-timor-leste-s-veterans-an-unfinished-struggle.pdf.Google Scholar
Dalakoglou, Dimitris. 2010. “Migrating-remitting – ‘Building’ – Dwelling: House-making as ‘Proxy’ Presence in Postsocialist Albania.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 16, no. 4: 761–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darian-Smith, Eve, 2013. Laws and Societies in Global Contexts: Contemporary Approaches. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
De Sardan, J. P. Olivier. 1999. “A Moral Economy of Corruption in Africa?” Journal of Modern African Studies 37, no. 1: 25–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Sousa Santos, Boaventura. 2006. “Globalizations.” Theory, Culture & Society 23, no. 2–3: 393–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delaney, Patrick X. 2006. “Transnational Corruption: Regulation Across Borders.” Virginia Journal of International Law 47: 413–43.Google Scholar
Democratic Republic of East Timor. 2009. Rules of Procedure of the National Parliament of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. Series I, No. 40, 11 November. https://mj.gov.tl/jornal/lawsTL/RDTL-Law/RDTL-Resolutions/Rules%20of%20Procedure%20of%20the%20National%20Parliament%20of%20RDTL.pdf.Google Scholar
Desai, Deval, and Woolcock, Michael. 2015. “The Politics—and Process—of Rule of Law Systems in Developmental States.” In The Politics of Inclusive Development: Interrogating the Evidence, edited by Hickey, Sam, Sen, Kunal, and Bukenya, Badru, 174–96. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Desai, Deval, Isser, Deborah, and Woolcock, Michael. 2012. “Rethinking Justice Reform in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States: Lessons for Enhancing the Capacity of Development Agencies.” Hague Journal on the Rule of Law 4, no. 1: 54–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dezalay, Yves
, and Garth, Bryant, eds. 2002. Global Prescriptions: The Production, Exportation, and Importation of a New Legal Orthodoxy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dezalay, Yves
, and Garth, Bryant, eds. 2011. Lawyers and the Rule of Law in an Era of Globalization. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dezalay, Yves, and Garth, Bryant. 2019. Asian Legal Revivals: Lawyers in the Shadow of Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
European External Action Service. 2021. “Timor-Leste and the European Union Commit to a Further Strengthening of Their Partnership.” 29 January. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/delegations/timor-leste/timor-leste-and-european-union-commit-further-strengthening-their-partnership_und?s=254.Google Scholar
East Timor Law and Justice Bulletin.
2015. “Issue of Immunity Hampers Trial of the East Timor Secretary of State for Arts and Culture on Charges of Mismanagement, Embezzlement and Abuse of Power.” 16 December. https://www.easttimorlawandjusticebulletin.com/2015/12/issue-of-immunity-hampers-trial-of-east.html.Google Scholar
Engel, Rebecca E. 2020. The 2006 Crisis in East Timor: Lessons for Contemporary Peacebuilding. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erie, Matthew. 2021. “Law and Development Minus Legal Transplants: The Example of China in Vietnam.” Asian Journal of Law and Society 8, no. 2: 372–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eslava, Luis. 2015. Local Space, Global Life. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flanary, Rachel, Moran, Jonathan, and Williams, Robert. 2000. Corruption in the Developed World. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Fundasaun Mahein
. 2018. “FM’s Take on the Prado Demonstrations and Police Response.” 15 November. https://www.fundasaunmahein.org/2018/11/15/fms-take-on-the-prado-demonstrations-and-police-response/.Google Scholar
Garcia, Gabriel. 2016. “The Rise of the Global South, the IMF and the Future of Law and Development.” Third World Quarterly 37, no. 2: 191–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillespie, John, and Nicholson, Penelope. 2012. Law and Development and the Global Discourses of Legal Transfers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glenn, H. Patrick. 2014. Legal Traditions of the World: Sustainable Diversity in Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Global Integrity. 2013. Global Integrity Report: Timor Leste 2013. https://www.globalintegrity.org/resource/gir2013_report_timorleste/.Google Scholar
Goldbach, Toby S. 2019. “Why Legal Transplants?” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 15: 583–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldstein, Daniel M. 2003. “In Our Own Hands: Lynching, Justice, and the Law in Bolivia.” American Ethnologist 30, no. 1: 22–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodale, Mark, and Engle Merry, Sally, eds, 2007. The Practice of Human Rights: Tracking Law between the Global and the Local. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Government of Timor Leste. 2010. “Statement by the Spokesperson of the IV Constitutional Government.” 2 February. http://timor-leste.gov.tl/?p=2085&lang=en.Google Scholar
Grenfell, Laura, 2013. Promoting the Rule of Law in Post-Conflict States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gusmao, Xanana. 2009. “Intervention: Response by His Excellency the Prime Minister Kay Rala Xanana Gusmao on the Occasion of the Motion of No Confidence.” Plenary Session of the National Parliament. 12 November. https://laohamutuk.org/Justice/99/bere/Censura/PM12Oct09En.pdf.Google Scholar
Halliday, Terence C., and Shaffer, Gregory C.. 2015. Transnational Legal Orders. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammerslev, Ole. 2011. “The European Union and the United States in Eastern Europe: Two Ways of Exporting Law, Expertise and State Power.” In Dezalay and Garth 2011, 142–63.Google Scholar
Harding, Andrew, Antons, C., and Gessmer, V.. 2007. “South East Asia 1997–2006: Two Case Studies on the Politics of Law and Development.” In Antons and Gessner, 133–57.Google Scholar
Hersant, Jeanne. 2017. “Patronage and Rationalization: Reform to Criminal Procedure and the Lower Courts in Chile.” Law & Social Inquiry 42, no. 2: 423–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heupel, Monika. 2012. “Rule of Law Promotion through International Organization and NGO.” In Rule of Law Dynamics: In an Era of International and Transnational Governance, edited by Zurn, Micharl, Nollkaemper, Andre, and Peerenboom, Randy, 133–52. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoadley, S. 1976. “East Timor: Civil War: Causes and Consequences.” Southeast Asian Affairs 1976: 411–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoag, Colin. 2010. “The Magic of the Populace: An Ethnography of Illegibility in the South African Immigration Bureaucracy.” PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review 33, no. 1: 6–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsu, Carolyn L. 2001. “Political Narratives and the Production of Legitimacy: The Case of Corruption in Post-Mao China.” Qualitative Sociology 24, no. 1: 25–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchinson, Francis. 2005. “A Review of Donor Agency Approaches to Anti-Corruption.” Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/FrancisHutchinson/publication/282652099_A_Review_of_Donor_Agency_Approaches_to_Anti-Corruption/links/5616015608ae983c1b42410a/A-Review-of-Donor-Agency-Approaches-to-Anti-Corruption.pdf.Google Scholar
Interpeace. 2013. “Timor-Leste: Peace Houses Used to Raise Awareness about Corruption.” Interpeace. 9 December. ∼https://www.interpeace.org/2013/12/timor-leste-2/#:∼:text=The%20Peace%20Houses%2C%20founded%20on,can%20access%20anti%2Dcorruption%20materials.Google Scholar
Ivory, Radha. 2020. “Transnational Criminal Law or the Transnational Legal Ordering of Corruption?: Theorizing Australian Corporate Foreign Bribery Reforms.” In Transnational Legal Ordering of Criminal Justice, edited by Shaffer, Gregory and Aaronson, Ely, 84–119. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jayasuriya, Kanishka. 2003. “Authoritarian Liberalism, Governance and the Emergence of the Regulatory State in Post-Crisis East Asia.” In Politics and Markets in the Wake of the Asian Crisis, edited by Beeson, Mark, Jayasuriya, Kanishka, Kim, Hyuk-Rae, and Robison, Richard, 330–45. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Jerónimo, Patricia. 2017. Report on Citizenship Law:East Timor. Florence: Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies. https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/45931/GLOBALCIT_CR_2017_07.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.Google Scholar
Johnsøn, Jesper. 2016a. “Aid Agencies’ Anti-Corruption Strategies: Comparing the World Bank, the EU and UNDP.” In Johnsøn 2016b, 70–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnsøn, Jesper. 2016b. Anti-Corruption Strategies in Fragile States. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnsøn, Jesper. 2016c. “How to Reduce Corruption in Fragile States: The Theory.” In Johnsøn 2016b, 39–69.Google Scholar
Johnston, Michael. 2012. “Building a Social Movement against Corruption.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 18, no. 2: 57–74.Google Scholar
JSMP (Judicial System Monitoring Programme). 2012. Parliamentary Privilege and Immunity in Timor Leste: How to Ensure Equality Before the Law. June. https://jsmp.tl/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Parliamentary-privilege-and-immunity-June-2012-FINAL.pdf.Google Scholar
JSMP (Judicial System Monitoring Programme). 2014. Dismissal of International Officials and Advisors in the Timor-Leste Judicial Sector an Analysis of the Constitutionality, Legality and Impact of Parliamentary Resolution No. 11/2014 and Government Resolutions No. 29/2014 and 32/2014. 16 December. https://www.laohamutuk.org/Justice/2014/JSMPRept16Dec2014en.pdf.Google Scholar
JSMP (Judicial System Monitoring Programme). 2017. Justice Update: Challenges in Preventing and Combatting Corruption as Well as Good Governance and the Importance of the Law against Corruption. http://jsmp.tl/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/1-JU_Korrupsaun-12-Dec-2017-ENGLISH-2.pdf.Google Scholar
Kennedy, David. 2018. A World of Struggle: How Power, Law, and Expertise Shape Global Political Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kent, Lia. 2018. The Dynamics of Transitional Justice: International Models and Local Realities in East Timor. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kingsbury, Benedict, Krisch, Nico, and Stewart, Richard B.. 2005. “The Emergence of Global Administrative Law.” Law and Contemporary Problems 68, no. 3–4: 15–61.Google Scholar
Hamutuk, La’o. 2011. “Anti-Corruption Law under Discussion.” https://www.laohamutuk.org/econ/corruption/11AnticorruptionLaw.htm.Google Scholar
Hamutuk, La’o. 2013a. “General State Budget for 2014.” http://www.laohamutuk.org/econ/OGE14/13OGE14.htm#process.Google Scholar
Hamutuk, La’o. 2013b. “Interesting Items on Timor-Leste’s Procurement Portal.” https://www.laohamutuk.org/econ/portal/ProcIndex.htm.Google Scholar
Hamutuk, La’o. 2014. “Handing out the Cash.” http://laohamutuk.blogspot.com/2014/01/handing-out-cash.html.Google Scholar
Lloyd, Paulette, and Simmons, Beth A.. 2015. “Framing for a New Transnational Legal Order: The Case of Human Trafficking.” In Halliday and Shaffer, 400–38.Google Scholar
Mattei, Ugo, and Nader, Laura. 2008. Plunder: When the Rule of Law Is Illegal. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
McCormick, Barrett L. 1990. Political Reform in Post-Mao China: Democracy and Bureaucracy in a Leninist State. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle. 2009. Human Rights and Gender Violence: Translating International Law into Local Justice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Merryman, John Henry. 1981. “On the Convergence (and Divergence) of the Civil Law and the Common Law.” Stanford Journal of International Law 17: 357–88.Google Scholar
Miller, Jonathan M. 2003. “A Typology of Legal Transplants: Using Sociology, Legal History and Argentine Examples to Explain the Transplant Process.” American Journal of Comparative Law 51, no. 4: 839–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ministry of Justice Timor Leste. 2010. “Justice Sector Strategy Plan.” https://www.mj.gov.tl/files/JSSP_ENGLISH.pdf.Google Scholar
Nelken, David. 2001. ‘The Meaning of Success in Transnational Legal Transfers.” Windsor Year Book of Access to Justice 19: 349–66Google Scholar
Nelken, David, and Feest, Johannes. 2001. Adapting Legal Cultures. New York: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Pip, and Hinderling, Samantha, 2018. “Court Development in Timor-Leste: Handover and Its Long Shadow.” In Handbook on the Rule of Law, edited by May, Christopher and Winchester, Adam, 509–30. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Nicolau, Guteriano. 2007. “Ombudsman for Human Rights: The Case of Timor-Leste.” Hurights Osaka 47: n.p. https://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/focus/section2/2007/03/ombudsman-for-human-rights-the-case-of-timor-leste.html.Google Scholar
Nixon, Rod. 2013. Justice and Governance in East Timor: Indigenous Approaches and the New Subsistence State. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nygaard-Christensen, Maj. 2012. “The Rebel and the Diplomat: Revolutionary Spirits, Sacred Legitimation and Democracy in Timor-Leste.” In Varieties of Secularism in Asia, edited by Nils Ole Bubandt and Martijn Van Beek, 209–30. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Nygaard-Christensen, Maj. 2017. “The UN Document Leak.” In Fieldwork in Timor-Leste, edited by Nygaard-Christensen, Maj and Bexley, Angie, 191–208. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Sophia. 2019. “Global Norms, Local Resistance: Addresing Impunity in Japan and Beyond.” In Legal Transplants in East Asia and Oceania, edited by Breda, Vito, 256–96. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Observador
. 2017. “Xanana Gusmão Defende Ex-Ministra Timorense Condenada e Critica Justiça.” 26 January. https://observador.pt/2017/01/26/xanana-gusmao-defende-ex-ministra-timorense-condenada-e-critica-justica/.Google Scholar
Pahuja, Sundhya. 2011. Decolonising International Law: Development, Economic Growth and the Politics of Universality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pardo, Italo. 2004. Between Morality and the Law: Corruption, Anthropology and Comparative Society. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Peerenboom, Randall. 2013. “Toward a Methodology for Successful Legal Transplants.” Chinese Journal of Comparative Law 1, no. 1: 4–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porst, Luise, and Sakdapolrak, Patrick. 2017. “How Scale Matters in Translocality: Uses and Potentials of Scale in Translocal Research.” Erdkunde 71, no. 2: 111–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, Pitman B. 1994. Domestic Law Reforms in Post-Mao China. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Potter, Pitman B. 2004. “Legal Reform in China: Institutions, Culture, and Selective Adaptation.” Law & Social Inquiry 29, no. 2: 465–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, Pitman B. 2009. “Selective Adoption and Institutional Capacity Building: Methods of Applying International Rules under the Impacts of Globalisation.” In The Hypothesis of Selective Application and China’s Legal Practice, edited by Pitman Potter and G. Xiaorong. Shanghai: Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press.Google Scholar
Potter, Pitman B. 2021. Exporting Virtue?: China’s International Human Rights Activism in the Age of Xi Jinping. Vancouver: UBC Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reheem Shaila, Sapna. 2019. “Shifting the Legal Borderlands of Rule of Law Programs: Brazilian Cooperation Agency (ABC) and the Public Defenders’ Office in East Timor.” Revista Estudos Institucionais
(Journal of Institutional Studies) 5, no. 2: 747–76.Google Scholar
Reheem Shaila, Sapna. 2023. “A Judiciary ‘Suspended’ in Transition? A Case Study of Portuguese Judges in East Timor.” In The Cambridge Handbook of Foreign Judges on Domestic Courts, Cambridge Law Handbooks, edited by A. Dziedzic and S. N. M. Young, 124–39. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roht-Arriaza, Naomi. 2005. The Pinochet Effect: Transnational Justice in the Age of Human Rights. Pittsburgh: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roll, Kate. 2018a. Reconsidering Reintegration: Veterans’ Benefits as State-Building. Canberra: Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
Roll, Kate. 2018b. “Street Level Bureaucrats and Post-Conflict Policy-Making: Corruption, Correctives, and the Rise of Veterans’ Pensions in Timor-Leste.” Civil Wars 20, no. 2: 262–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schimmelfennig, Frank. 2012. “A Comparison of the Rule of Law Promotion Policies of Major Western Powers.” In Rule of Law Dynamics: In an Era of International and Transnational Governance, edited by Zurn, Michael, Nollkaemper, Andre, and Peerenboom, Randy, 111–32. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaffer, Gregory
, and Aaronson, Ely, eds. 2020. Transnational Legal Ordering of Criminal Justice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Short, Jodi L. 2016. “Transplanting Law in a Globalized World: Private Transnational Regulation and the Legal Transplant Paradigm.” In Comparative Law and Regulation, edited by Bignami, Francesca and Zaring, David, 430–44. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Siems, Mathias M. 2014. “Bringing in Foreign Ideas: The Quest for Better Law in Implicit Comparative Law.” Journal of Comparative Law 9: 119–36.Google Scholar
Siems, Mathias M. 2022. Comparative Law. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sikkink, Kathryn, 2002. “Transnational Advocacy Networks and the Social Construction of Legal Rules.” In Dezalay and Garth 2002, 37–64.Google Scholar
Simion, Kristina. 2021. Rule of Law Intermediaries: Brokering Influence in Myanmar. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, Scott. 2010. “Negotiating Power: Elections and the Constitution of Indigenous Taiwan.” American Ethnologist 37, no. 4: 726–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slaughter, Anne-Marie. 1999. “Judicial Globalization.” Vanderbilt Journal of International Law 40: 1103–24.Google Scholar
Snyder, Francis G. 1982. “Review of Legal Imperialism: American Lawyers and Foreign Aid in Latin America by James Gardner.” Wisconsin Law Review 80, no. 4: 373–96.Google Scholar
Strohmeyer, Hansjorg. 2001. “Collapse and Reconstruction of a Judicial System: The United Nations Mission in Kosovo and East Timor.” American Journal of International Law 95, no. 1: 46–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suara Timor Lorosae
. 2011. “Projecto EDTL prioirdade ba veteranus” [Priority for veterans in EDTL project]. 31 March.Google Scholar
Svensson, Jakob. 2005. “Eight Questions About Corruption.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 19, no. 3: 19–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swenson, Geoffrey. 2022. Contending Orders: Legal Pluralism and the Rule of Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tamanaha, Brian Z. 1995. “The Lessons of Law-and-Development Studies.” American Journal of International Law 89, no. 2: 470–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tamanaha, Brian Z. 2011. “The Primacy of Society and the Failures of Law and Development.” Cornell International Law Journal 44: 209–47.Google Scholar
Taylor-Leech. 2008. “Language and Identity in East Timor: The Discourses of Nation Building.” Language Problems and Language Planning 32, no. 2: 153–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor-Leech. 2013. “The Language Situation in Timor-Leste.” In Language Planning in the Asia Pacific, edited by Kaplan, Robert and Baldauf, Richard, 92–159. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tempo Semanal
. 2012. “Minister of Finance Emilia Pires Approves Budget for Her Husband.” http://temposemanaltimor.blogspot.com/2012/11/minister-of-finance-emilia-pires.html.Google Scholar
Theobald, Robin, and Williams, Robert. 2000. Corruption in the Developing World. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Torsello, Davide. 2016. Corruption in Public Administration: An Ethnographic Approach. Northampton, UK: Edward Elgar.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kien, Tran, Ho Pham, Nam, and Lu Nguyen, Quynh-Anh. 2019. “Negotiating Legal Reform through Reception of Law: The Missing Role of Mixed Legal Transplants.” Asian Journal of Comparative Law 14, no. 2: 175–209.Google Scholar
Traube, Elizabeth. 2007. “Unpaid Wages: Local Narratives and the Imagination of the Nation.” Asian Journal of Anthropology 8, no. 1: 9–25.Google Scholar
Transparency International. 2015. Timor-Leste: Overview of Corruption and Anti-Corruption. Berlin: Transparency International. https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/helpdesk/Country_profile_Timor_Leste_2015.pdf.Google Scholar
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2018. “UNDP and CAC Form New Partnership to Strengthen Transparency and Accountability in Timor-Leste.” https://www.un.org.tl/en/media-center/news-releases/undp-and-cac-form-new-partnership-to-strengthen-transparency-and-accountability-in-timor-leste.Google Scholar
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2019. “New UNDP & KOICA Partnership to Support Anti-Corruption and Integrity.” 9 December. https://www.undp.org/arab-states/events/new-undp-koica-partnership-support-anti-corruption-and-integrity.Google Scholar
UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime). 2003. UN Guide for Anti-Corruption Policies. November. https://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/corruption/UN_Guide.pdf.Google Scholar
US Agency for International Development (USAID). N.d.a. “Completed Projects Timor-Leste.” https://www.usaid.gov/timor-leste/basic-page/completed-projects.Google Scholar
US Agency for International Development (USAID). N.d.b. “Timor-Leste Threshold Program.” USAID Millennium Challenge Corporation. https://www.mcc.gov/where-we-work/program/timor-leste-threshold-program/.Google Scholar
US Agency for International Development (USAID). 2009. Corruption Assessment: Timor Leste. 15 September. https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadq697.pdf.Google Scholar
US Agency for International Development (USAID). 2022. “Countering Transnational Corruption State of Innovation Analysis.” November. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/2023-01/Countering%20Transnational%20Corruption%20State%20of%20Innovation%20Analysis.pdf.Google Scholar
US Agency for International Development (USAID). 2024. “USAID Information Brief: USAID’s Expanded Approach to Anticorruption.” 16 February. https://oig.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/2024-03/5-000-24-001-A-rev_0.pdf.Google Scholar
Van Camp, Katie R. 2014. “The Pardoning Power: Where Does Tradition End and Legal Regulation Begin.” Mississippi Law Journal 83: 1271–1318.Google Scholar
Vecchioli, Virginia. 2011. “Human Rights and the Rule of Law in Argentina: Transnational Advocacy Networks and the Transformation of the National Legal Field.” In Dezalay and Garth 2011, 93–112.Google Scholar
Vincent, Louise. 2008. “Cutting Tradition: The Political Regulation of Traditional Circumcision Rites in South Africa’s Liberal Democratic Order.” Journal of Southern African Studies 34, no. 1: 77–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, Chenguang. 2013. “Legal Transplantation and Legal Development in Transitional China.” World Bank Legal Review 4: 161–79.Google Scholar
Watson, Alan. 1974. Law Making in the Later Roman Republic. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Watson, Alan. 1993. Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law. Athens: University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar
Watson, Alan. 1995. “From Legal Transplants to Legal Formants.” American Journal of Comparative Law 43: 469–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weitzman, Lenore. 1974. “Legal Regulation of Marriage: Tradition and Change, A Proposal for Individual Contracts and Contracts in Lieu of Marriage.” California Law Review 62: 1169–1288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaum, Dominik, and Cheng, Christine, 2011. Corruption and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding: Selling the Peace? Abingdon, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Zaum, Dominik, Taxell, Nils, and Johnson, Jesper. 2012. “Mapping Evidence Gaps in Anti-Corruption: Assessing the State of the Operationally Relevant Evidence on Donors’ Actions and Approaches to Reducing Corruption.” CHR Michelsen Institute 7 (October): 1–58. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08a9ae5274a27b2000699/U4Issue-2012-07-mapping-evidence-web.pdf.Google Scholar
Zimmermann, Reinhard. 1994. “Civil Code and Civil Law-The ‘Europeanization’ of Private Law within the European Community and the Re-Emergence of a European Legal Science.” Columbia Journal of European Law 1: 63–106.Google Scholar
Zumbansen, Peer. 2010. “Transnational Legal Pluralism.” Transnational Legal Theory 1, no. 2: 141–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zumbrägel, Tobias. 2020. “Kingdom of Gravity:Autocratic Promotion and Diffusion in Saudi Arabia.” In Authoritarian Gravity Centers: A Cross-Regional Study of Authoritarian Promotion and Diffusion, edited by Kneuer, Marianne and Demmelhuber, Thomas, 55–88. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar