Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T21:47:15.009Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Siting the Death Penalty Internationally

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 December 2018

David F. Greenberg  and
Valerie West
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We examine sources of variation in possession and use of the death penalty using data drawn from 193 nations in order to test theories of punishment. We find the death penalty to be rooted in a country's legal and political systems, and to be influenced by its religious traditions. A country's level of economic development, its educational attainment, and its religious composition shape its political institutions and practices, indirectly affecting its use of the death penalty. The article concludes by discussing likely future trends.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 33 , Issue 2 , Spring 2008 , pp. 295 - 343
Copyright
Copyright © American Bar Foundation, 2008 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

We are grateful to Slawomir Redo, James Galbraith, Robert Barro, Michael Ross, Maria Stylianidou, Margaret Lewis, and Jaw-perng Wang for assistance with data acquisition; to Margaret Lewis for a translation from Chinese; and to Mikaela Arthur, Vanessa Barker, Aaron Beim, Christian Boulanger, Michela Bowman, Stephanos Bibas, Neil Caren, Vivek Chibber, Theodore Christianson, Deborah Denno, Thomas Ertmann, David Garland, Evi Girling, Maria Los, Gerald Marwell, Dario Melossi, Rene Römkens, Joachim Savelsberg, Mildred Schwartz, Franklin Zimring, and the anonymous referees for helpful questions, comments, and suggestions. Earlier versions of this article were presented at the annual meetings of the American Sociological Association in Anaheim, California and the Law and Society Association in Budapest, Hungary, both in 2001.

References

References

Abed, Shukri. 1995. Islam and Democracy. In Democracy, War, and Peace in the Middle East, ed. Garrnham, David and Tessler, Mark. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Abootalebi, Ali R. 1999. Islam, Islamists, and Democracy. Middle East Review of International Affairs 3:1–11.Google Scholar
Acemoglu, Daron, Johnson, Simon, Robinson, James A., and Yared, Pierre. 2005. Income and Democracy. Centre for Economic Policy Research Discussion Paper No. 5274. http://www.cepr.org/pubs/dps/DP5273.asp (accessed November 25, 2007).Google Scholar
Alarid, Leanne Fiftal, and Wang, Hsiao-Ming. 2001. Mercy and Punishment: Buddhism and the Death Penalty. Social Justice 28:231–47.Google Scholar
Alesina, Alberto, Devleeschauer, Arnaud, Easterly, William, Kurlat, Sergio, and Wacziarg, Romain. 2002. Fractionalization. NBER Working Paper 9411. http://www.nber.org (accessed November 25, 2007).Google Scholar
Alesina, Alberto, Baqir, Reza, and Easterly, William. 1999. Public Goods and Ethnic Divisions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 114:1243–84.Google Scholar
Alesina, Alberto, and Ferrara, Eliana La. 1999. Participation in Heterogeneous Communities. Quarterly Journal of Economics 115:847–904.Google Scholar
Alesina, Alberto, and Ferrara, Eliana La. 2002. Who Trusts Others? Journal of Public Economics 85:207–34.Google Scholar
Al-Khatib, Fawzi, and Al-Abdulla, Sultan M. 2001. The State of Qatar: A Financial and Legal Overview. Middle East Journal 8:110–25.Google Scholar
Bahry, Louay. 1999. Elections in Qatar. A Window of Democracy Opens in the Gulf. Middle East Policy 6:118–27.Google Scholar
Bailey, Victor. 2000. The Shadow of the Gallows: The Death Penalty and the British Labour Government, 1945–51. Law and History Review 18 (2): 305–49.Google Scholar
Banks, Adelle M. 2000. Baptists Say Yes to Death Penalty, No to Women Pastors. Presbyterian News Service. http://www.pcusa.org/pcnews/oldnews/2000/02363.htm. (accessed December 15, 2007).Google Scholar
Barclay, Gordon, and Tavares, Cynthia. 2003. International Comparisons of Criminal Justice Statistics 2001. Home Office Bulletin Issue 12/03. London, UK: Home Office. http://www.csdp.org/research/hosb1203.pdf (accessed November 25, 2007).Google Scholar
Barrett, David B., Kurian, George T., and Johnson, Todd M. 2001. World Christian Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Barro, Robert J. 1999. Determinants of Democracy. Journal of Political Economy 107:S158–S183.Google Scholar
Barro, Robert J., and McCleary, Rachel M. 2005. Which Countries Have State Religions? The Quarterly Journal of Economics 120:1331–71.Google Scholar
Bar-Tal, Daniel. 1976. Prosocial Behavior: Theory and Research. New York: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Beck, Theodore, Clarke, George, Groff, Alberta, Keefer, Philip, and Walsh, Patrick. 2001. New Tools in Comparative Political Economy: The Database of Political Institutions. World Bank Economic Review 15 (1): 165–76.Google Scholar
Beckett, Katherine. 1997. Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Beckett, Katherine, and Sassoon, Theodore. 2000. The Politics of Injustice: Crime and Punishment in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.Google Scholar
Beckett, Katherine, and Western, Bruce. 2001. Governing Social Marginality: Welfare, Incarceration, and the Transformation of State Policy. Punishment & Society 3:43–60.Google Scholar
Bedau, Hugo, ed. 1997. The Death Penalty in America: Current Controversies. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Berman, Paul. 2003. Terror and Liberalism. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Binder, Leonard. 1964. The Ideological Revolution in the Middle East. New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Blasier, Cole. 1985. The Hovering Giant: U.S. Responses to Revolutionary Change in Latin America. Revised ed. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Block, Brian P., and Hostettler, John. 1997. Hanging in the Balance: A History of the Abolition of Capital Punishment in Britain. Winchester, UK: Waterside Press.Google Scholar
Bollen, Kenneth A. 1980. Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political Democracy. American Sociological Review 45:370–90.Google Scholar
Borg, Marian J. 1997. The Southern Subculture of Punitiveness? Regional Variation in Support for Capital Punishment. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 34:25–45.Google Scholar
Box, Steven. 1987. Recession, Crime, and Punishment. Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble.Google Scholar
Brockner, J., and Siegel, P. 1996. Understanding the Interaction Between Procedural and Distributive Justice. In Trust in Organizations, ed. Kramer, Roderick M. and Tyler, Tom R. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Buhler, Georg, trans. 1886. The Laws of Manu. Vol. 25 of Sacred Books of the East. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Buruma, Ian, and Margalit, Avishai. 2004. Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Callard, Keith. 1968. Pakistan, a Political Study. London: G. Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Cantor, Norman F. 1997. Imagining the Law: Common Law and the Foundations of the American Legal System. New York: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Carothers, Thomas. 2002. The End of the Transition Paradigm. Journal of Democracy 13 (1): 5–21.Google Scholar
Caselli, Francesco, and Coleman, Wilbur John II. 2002. On the Theory of Ethnic Conflict. http://www.wcepr.org/pus/dps/DP56622.asp (accessed November 27, 2007).Google Scholar
Chiricos, Theodore G., and DeLone, Miriam. 1992. Labor Surplus and Punishment: A Review and Assessment of Theory and Evidence. Social Problems 39:421–46.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1973. For Reasons of State. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1988. The Culture of Terrorism. Boston: South End Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1999. Deterring Democracy. London and New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam, and Herman, Edward S. 1979. The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism. Boston: South End Press.Google Scholar
Chon, Donsoo. 2001. The Impact of Medical Resources on Criminally Induced Lethality: A Cross-National Assessment. PhD diss., School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Florida State University.Google Scholar
Choueiri, Y. 1996. The Political Discourse of Contemporary Islamist Movements. In Islamic Fundamentalism, ed. Sidahmed, Abdel Salem and Ehteshami, Anoushiravam. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Christoph, James B. 1962. Capital Punishment and British Politics: The British Movement to Abolish the Death Penalty 1945–1957. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Compagnoni, Francesco. 1978. Capital Punishment and Torture in the Tradition of the Roman Catholic Church. Concilium 120:39–53.Google Scholar
Criminal Investigation Bureau. 2000. 1999 Statistics for Criminal Cases in Taiwan and Fujian. Taipei: Republic of China: National Police Agency.Google Scholar
Crystal, Jill, 1990. Oil and Politics in the Gulf. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cutler, David M., Elmendorf, Douglas W., and Zeckhauser, Richard J. 1993. Demographic Characteristics and the Public Bundle. Public Finance 148:178–98.Google Scholar
David, René, and Brierley, John. 1978. Major Legal Systems in the World Today. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Doucouliagos, Hristos, and Ulubasoglu, Mehmet. 2006. Democracy and Economic Growth: A Meta-analysis. http://www.international.ucla.edu/cms/files/Doucouliagos.pdf (accessed November 28, 2007).Google Scholar
Dulles, Avery Cardinal. 2005. A Call for Reckoning: Religion and the Death Penalty. In A Call for Reckoning: Religion and the Death Penalty, ed. Owens, Erik C., Carlson, John D., and Elshtain, Eric P. Washington, DC: Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life.Google Scholar
Durkheim, Emile. 1933. The Division of Labor in Society. Trans. Simpson, G. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Durkheim, Emile. 1973. Two Laws of Penal Evolution. Economy & Society 2:285–308.Google Scholar
Easterly, William, and Levine, R. 1997. Africa's Growth Tragedy: Policies and Ethnic Divisions. Quarterly Journal of Economics 112:1203–50.Google Scholar
Eisner, Manuel. 2003. Long-Term Historical Trends in Violent Crime. Crime and Justice: An Annual Review 31:83–142.Google Scholar
El Fadl, Khaled Abou. 2003. Islam and the Challenge of Democracy. Boston Review (April/May). http://bostonreview.net/BR28.2/abou.html (accessed November 24, 2007).Google Scholar
Energy Information Administration. 2002. International Energy Annual 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Energy. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/international/021900.pdf (accessed November 14, 2007).Google Scholar
Esposito, John L., with De Long-Bas, Natana J. 2003. Classical Islam. In God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions, ed. Neusner, Jacob, 131–57. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Esposito, John L., and Piscatori, James P. 1992. Democratization and Islam. The Middle East Journal 45:427–40.Google Scholar
Esposito, John L., and Voll, John O. 1996. Islam and Democracy. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Feldman, Noah. 2003. After Jihad: America and the Struggle for Islamic Democracy. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Fijalkowski, Agata. 2001. The Abolition of the Death Penalty in Central and Eastern Europe. Tilburg Foreign Law Review 9:62–83.Google Scholar
Fish, M. Stephen. 2002. Islam and Authoritarianism. World Politics 55 (Oct.): 4–37.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1975. Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la prison [Discipline and Punishment: The Birth of the Prison]. Paris: Gallimard.Google Scholar
Freedom, House. 2000. Freedom in the World 2000. New York: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
French, Rebecca Redwood. 1995. The Golden Yoke: The Legal Cosmology of Buddhist Tibet. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Fukuyama, Francis. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Gad, Azar. 2007. The Return of Authoritarian Great Powers. Foreign Affairs 86:59–70.Google Scholar
Gaertner, Samuel F., and Dovidio, John F. 1977. The Subtlety of White Racism, Arousal, and Helping Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35:691–707.Google Scholar
Gardet, Louis. 1954. La cité musulmane: vie sociale et politique [The Muslim City: Social and Political Life]. Paris: J. Vrin.Google Scholar
Garland, David. 1985. Punishment and Welfare: A History of Penal Strategies. Brookfield, VT: Gower.Google Scholar
Garland, David. 1990. Punishment and Modern Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Garland, David. 2001. The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Late Modernity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Garland, David. 2005. Capital Punishment and American Culture. Punishment and Society 7:347–76.Google Scholar
Garrard, John, Tolz, Vera, and White, Ralph, eds. 2000. European Democratization since 1800. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Gattrell, V. A. C. 1994. The Hanging Tree: Execution and the English People, 1770–1868. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gest, Ted. 2001. Crime and Politics: Big Government's Erratic Campaign for Law and Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Glaeser, Edward L., Laibson, David I., Scheinkman, José A., and Soutter, Chrstine. 2000. Measuring Trust. Quarterly Journal of Economics 115:811–46.Google Scholar
Goldin, Claudia, and Katz, Lawrence F. 1999. Human Capital and Social Capital: The Rise of Secondary Schooling in America, 1910 to 1940. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 29:653–723.Google Scholar
Greeley, Andrew M. 2000. The Catholic Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Greenberg, David F. 1977. The Dynamics of Oscillatory Punishment Processes. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 68:643–55.Google Scholar
Greenberg, David F. 1999. Punishment, Division of Labor, and Social Solidarity. In The Criminology of Criminal Law, ed. Laufer, William S. and Adler, Freda. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Greenberg, David F. 2003. Long-Term Trends in Crimes of Violence. Criminology 42:1407–18.Google Scholar
Greenberg, David F., and Humphries, Drew. 1980. Social Control and Social Formation: A Marxian Analysis. In vol. 2, Toward a General Theory of Social Control, ed. Black, Donald, 171–208. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Greenberg, David F., and West, Valerie. 2001. State Prison Populations and Their Growth, 1971–1991. Criminology 39:615–53.Google Scholar
Gupta, Subhash. 1986. Capital Punishment in India. New Delhi, India: Deep and Deep.Google Scholar
Gyatso, Tenzin. 1998. Message Supporting the Moratorium on the Death Penalty. http://www.engaged-zen.org/HHDLMSG.html (accessed November 28, 2007).Google Scholar
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, and Esposito, John L., eds. 1998. Islam, Gender, and Social Change. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hamdi, Mohammed Elhachmi. 1996. Islam and Democracy: The Limits of the Western Model. Journal of Democracy 7 (April): 81–85.Google Scholar
Harvey, Peter. 1990. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teaching, History, and Practices. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1984. Will More Countries Become Democratic? Political Science Quarterly 99:193–218.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1991. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1996. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 2004. Who Are We? The Challenges to America's Identity. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald. 1990. Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald, and Baker, Wayne E. 2000. Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values. American Sociological Review 65:19–51.Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald, and Wenzel, Christian. 2005. Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Inkeles, Alex. 1990. Introduction: On Measuring Democracy. Studies in Comparative International Development 25 (1): 3–6.Google Scholar
Ismael, Salwa. 1995. Democracy in Contemporary Arab Intellectual Discourse. In vol. 1, Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, ed. Brynen, Rex, Korany, Bahgat, and Noble, Paul, 93–111. Boulder, CO: Lynne Riener.Google Scholar
Jackson, Pamela Irving. 1992. Minority Group Threat, Social Context, and Policy. In Social Threat and Social Control, ed. Liska, Allen E. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
Jacobs, David, and Kleban, Richard. 2003. Political Institutions, Minorities, and Punishment: A Pooled Cross-National Analysis of Imprisonment Rates. Social Forces 82:725–55.Google Scholar
Jagchid, Sechim, and Hyer, Paul. 1979. Mongolia's Culture and Society. Boulder, CO: Westview.Google Scholar
Jaggers, Keith, and Gurr, Ted Robert. 1995. Tracking Democracy's Third Wave with the Polity III Data. Journal of Peace Research 32 (4): 469–82.Google Scholar
Janković, Ivan. 1984. Socialism and the Death Penalty. Research in Law, Deviance and Social Control 8:109–37.Google Scholar
Jansen, G. H. 1979. Political Islam. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. 2002. Freedom, Equality and Justice in Islam. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society.Google Scholar
Karatnycky, Adrian. 2002. The 2001 Freedom House Survey: Muslim Countries and the Democracy Gap. Journal of Democracy 13 (Jan.): 99–112.Google Scholar
Karl, Terry Lynn. 1997. The Paradox of Plenty: Oil Booms and Petro-States. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Kaufmann, Daniel, Kraay, Aart, and Zoido-Lobatón, Pablo. 1999. Governance Matters. Policy Research Working Paper 2196. Washington, DC: World Bank Development Research Group Macroeconomics and Growth and World Bank Institute Governance, Regulation and Finance.Google Scholar
Kaufmann, Daniel, Kraay, Aart, and Mastruzzi, Massimo. 2007. Governance Matters VI: Governance Indicators for 1996–2006. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4280. http://www.govindicators.org (accessed November 26. 2007).Google Scholar
Kedourie, Elie. 1966. Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam. New York: Humanities Press.Google Scholar
Kedourie, Elie. 1992. Democracy and Arab Political Culture. Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy.Google Scholar
Keefer, Philip. 2002. Database of Political Institutions: Changes and Variable Definitions. Development Research Group, World Bank. http://sitesources.worldbank.org/INTRES/Resources/DPI2004_variable-definitions.pdf (accessed November 26, 2007).Google Scholar
Kepe, Gilles. 2002. Jihad: The Trial of Political Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Khalidi, Rashid. 2001. American Anointed: How the United States Sowed the Whirlwind. The American Prospect, Nov. 19, 16–17.Google Scholar
Kheng, Yeoh Kok. 2001. Towards an Index of Ethnic Fractionalization. FEA Working Paper No. 2001-3. http://www.cassey.com/fea2001-3.pdf (accessed November 26, 2007).Google Scholar
Killias, Martin. 1986. Power Concentration, Legitimation Crisis and Penal Severity. In Punishment and Privilege, ed. Groves, W. Byron and Newman, Graeme, 95–117. New York: Harrow and Heston.Google Scholar
Knack, Steven, and Keefer, Philip. 1995. Institutions and Economic Performance: Cross-Country Tests Using Alternative Measures. Economics and Politics 7 (3): 207–27.Google Scholar
Krämer, Gudrun. 1993. Islamist Notions of Democracy. Middle East Report 183:2–8.Google Scholar
Krueger, John R. 1972. New Materials on Oriat Law and History. Central Asiatic Journal 16:194–205.Google Scholar
La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, Shleifer, Andrei, and Vishy, Robert. 1999. The Quality of Governance. Journal of Law, Economics and Organization 3:222–82.Google Scholar
Leca, Jean. 1995. Democratization in the Arab World: Uncertainty, Vulnerability and Legitimacy: A Tentative Conceptualization and Some Hypotheses. In vol. 1, Political Liberalization and Democracy in the Arab World, ed. Brynen, Rex, Korany, Bahgat, and Noble, Paul. Boulder, CO: Lynne Riener.Google Scholar
Lewis, Bernard. 1994. The Shaping of the Modern Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, Todd. 2003. Buddhism: The Politics of Compassionate Rule. In God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions, ed. Neusner, Jacob, 233–56. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Licht, Amir N., Goldschmidt, Chanon, and Schwartz, Shalom H. 2007. Culture Rules: The Foundations of the Rule of Law and Other Norms of Governance. Journal of Comparative Economics 35 (4): 659–88.Google Scholar
Linebaugh, Peter. 1991. The London Hanged. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Lingat, Robert. 1973. The Classical Law of India. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lowenthal, Abraham, ed. 1991. The U.S. and Latin American Democracy: Learning from History. In Exporting Democracy: The United States and Latin America, 261–83. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2003. Why the Failure of Democratization? Explaining “Middle East Exceptionalism.” http://politics.gsas.nyu.edu/docs/IO/4751/lust-okar.pdf (accessed December 15, 2007).Google Scholar
Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2005. Structuring Conflict in the Arab World. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Marx, Karl. 1981. On Capital Punishment. In Crime and Capitalism: Readings in Marxist Criminology, ed. Greenberg, David F., 55–56. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.Google Scholar
McCarty, Theresa A. 1993. Demographic Diversity and the Size of the Public Sector. KYKLOS 46:225–40.Google Scholar
McGowen, Randall. 2007. Managing the Gallows: The Bank of England and the Death Penalty, 1979–1821. Law and History Review 25:241–82.Google Scholar
McLeod, Hugh, and Ustorf, Werner, eds. 2003. The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Megivern, James J. 1997. The Death Penalty: An Historical and Theological Survey. New York: Paulist Press.Google Scholar
Melossi, Dario. 2001. The Cultural Embeddedness of Social Control: Reflections on the Comparison of Italian and North-American Cultures Concerning Punishment. Theoretical Criminology 5 (4): 402–24.Google Scholar
Mernissi, Fatima. 1992. Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Milanovic, Branko. 2005. Relationship between Income and Emergence of Democracy Reexamined, 1820–2000: A Non-Parametric Approach. papers.ssrn.com/sol3/paper.cfm?abstract_id=812164 (accessed November 26, 2007).Google Scholar
Muller, Edward N. 1995. Dependent Economic Development, Aid Dependence on the United States, and Democratic Breakdown in the Third World. International Studies Quarterly 29:445–69.Google Scholar
Neumayer, Eric. Forthcoming. Death Penalty: The Political Foundations of the Global Trend toward Abolition. Human Rights Review.Google Scholar
Newman, Graeme, ed. 1999. Global Report on Crime and Justice. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nguyen, Ngoc Hyun, and Tai, Ta Van. 1987. The Lê Code: A Comparative Sino-Vietnamese Legal Study with Historical-Juridical Analysis and Annotations. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
O'Donovan, Oliver. 1988. The Death Penalty in Evangelium Vitae . In Ecumenical Ventures in Ethics: Protestants Engage Pope John Paul II's Moral Encyclicals, ed. Hütter, Reinhard and Dieter, Theodor, 219. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans.Google Scholar
Pastore, Ann L., and Magiure, Kathleen, eds. 2000. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 1999. Washington, DC: USGPO (U.S. Dept. of Justice).Google Scholar
Peerenboom, Randall. 2004. Show Me the Money: The Dominance of Wealth in Determining Rights Performance in Asia. Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 15:75–152.Google Scholar
Pipes, Daniel. 1983. In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power. New York: Basic.Google Scholar
Pipes, Daniel. 1988. Slaves, Soldiers, and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Pipes, Daniel. 2000. Are Today's Islamic Movements Compatible with Democracy? Insight. http://www.danielpipes.org/article/347 (accessed Decenber 14, 2007).Google Scholar
Potter, Harry. 1993. Hanging in Judgement: Religion and the Death Penalty in England. London: SCM Press.Google Scholar
Poveda, Tony G. 2000. American Exceptionalism and the Death Penalty. Social Justice 27:252–67.Google Scholar
Pregibon, Daryl. 1980. Goodness of Link Tets for Generalized Linear Models. Applied Statistics 29:15–24.Google Scholar
Przeworski, Adam, Alvarez, Michael E., Cheibub, José Antonio, and Limongi, Fernando. 2000. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. 1993. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. 2007. E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century: The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture. Scandinavian Political Studies 30:137–74.Google Scholar
Quillian, Lincoln, and Pager, Devah. 2001. Black Neighbors, Higher Crime? The Role of Racial Stereotypes in Evaluations of Neighborhood Crime. American Journal of Sociology 107:717–67.Google Scholar
Quinney, Richard. 1977. Class, State and Crime: On the Theory and Practice of Criminal Justice. New York: David McKay.Google Scholar
Radzinowicz, Leon. 1999. Adventures in Criminology. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rahula, Walpola. 1974. What the Buddha Taught. 2nd ed. New York: Grove Press.Google Scholar
Reicher, Dieter. 2003. Staat, Schafott und Schuldegefühl: Was Staatsaufbau und Todesstrafe miteinander zu tun haben [State, Scaffold and Shame Feeling: What State-Building and the Death Penalty Have to Do with One Another]. Opladen, Germany: Leske and Budrich.Google Scholar
Remnick, David. 2004. Letter from Cairo: Going Nowhere. The New Yorker, July 12 and 19 (combined issue), 74–83.Google Scholar
Rex, John, and Mason, David, eds. 1986. Theories of Race and Ethnic Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Riasanovsky, Valentin A. 1965. Fundamental Principles of Mongol Law. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Rose, Richard. 2002. How Muslims View Democracy: Evidence from Central Asia. Journal of Democracy 13 (4): 102–11.Google Scholar
Ross, Michael L. 2001. Does Oil Hinder Democracy? World Politics 53 (April): 325–61.Google Scholar
Roy, Olivier. 1994. The Failure of Political Islam, trans. Volk, Carol. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ruddell, Rick. 2005. Social Disruption, State Priorities, and Minority Threat: A Cross-National Study of Imprisonment. Punishment & Society 7 (1): 7–28.Google Scholar
Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, Stephens, Evelyne Huber, and Stephens, John D. 1992. Capitalist Development and Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Savelsberg, Joachim. 1994. Knowledge, Domination, and Criminal Punishment. American Journal of Sociology 99:911–43.Google Scholar
Savey-Cassard, Paul. 1961. L’église catholique et la peine du mort [The Catholic Church and the Death Penalty]. Revue de Science Criminelle et le Droit Pénal Comparé, new series 1:773–85.Google Scholar
Schabas, William A. 1997. The Abolition of the Death Penalty in International Law. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schabas, William A. 2000. Islam and the Death Penalty. William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal 9 (1): 223–36.Google Scholar
Scheingold, Stuart A. 1984. The Politics of Law and Order: Street Crime and Public Policy. New York: Longman.Google Scholar
Schreiber, Ariane M. 1996. States That Kill: Discretion and the Death Penalty—A Worldwide Perspective. Cornell International Law Journal 29:263–327.Google Scholar
Schuck, Michael J. 1991. That They Be One: The Social Teaching of the Papal Encyclicals, 1740–1989. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Schulze, Hagen. 1996. States, Nations, and Nationalism: From the Middle Ages to the Present. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Scobell, Andrew. 1991. The Death Penalty under Socialism, 1917–1990: China, the Soviet Union, Cuba, and the German Democratic Republic. Criminal Justice History 12:189–234.Google Scholar
Simon, Jonathan. 2001. Fear and Loathing in Late Modernity: Reflections on the Cultural Sources of Mass Imprisonment in the United States. Punishment & Society 3:21–34.Google Scholar
Sivan, Emmanuel. 1985. Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Donald Eugene. 1963. India as a Secular State. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sommerville, J. P. 1986. Politics and Ideology in England 1603–1640. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Spitzer, Steven. 1975. Toward a Marxian Theory of Deviance. Social Problems 22:638–51.Google Scholar
Statistical Service of Cyprus. 2000. Criminal Statistics 1999. Lefkosia, Cyprus: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Steiker, Carol S. 2002. Capital Punishment and American Exceptionalism. Oregon Law Review 81:97–130.Google Scholar
Stepan, Alfred. 2000. Religion, Democracy, and the “Twin Tolerations.” Journal of Democracy 11 (4): 37–57.Google Scholar
Stepan, Alfred. 2001. Arguing Comparative Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Stork, Joe, and Beinem, Joel, eds. 1997. Political Islam. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Sturm, Jan-Egbert, and De Haan, Jakob. 2005. Determinants of Long-Term Growth: New Results Applying Robust Estimation and Extreme Bounds Analysis. Empirical Economics 30:597–617.Google Scholar
Sutton, John R. 1987. Doing Time: Dynamics of Imprisonment in the Reformist State. American Sociological Review 52:612–30.Google Scholar
Sutton, John R. 1990. Bureaucrats and Entrepreneurs: Institutional Responses to Deviant Children in the United States, 1890–1920s. American Journal of Sociology 95:1367–1400.Google Scholar
Sutton, John R. 2000. Imprisonment and Social Classification in Five Common-Law Democracies. American Journal of Sociology 106:350–86.Google Scholar
Sutton, John R. 2004. The Political Economy of Imprisonment in Affluent Western Democracies, 1960–1990. American Sociological Review 69 (April): 151–69.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, Billig, M., Bundy, R. P., and Flament, Claude. 1971. Social Categorization and Intergroup Behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology 1:149–78.Google Scholar
Taylor, Alan R. 1988. The Islamic Question in Middle East Politics. Boulder, CO: Westview.Google Scholar
The Economist. 2004. Indonesia's Shining Example, July 10, 10.Google Scholar
Tonry, Michael. 1999. Why Are U.S. Incarceration Rates So High? Crime & Delinquency 45 (4): 419–37.Google Scholar
Turner, Barry. 2001. The Statesman's Yearbook 2002: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the World. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Tuttle, Elizabeth O. 1961. The Crusade against Capital Punishment in Great Britain. London: Stevens and Sons.Google Scholar
United Nations. 2000. International Trade Statistics Yearbook 1999. Vol. 1. New York: United Nations Publications.Google Scholar
Uslaner, E. M. 2002. The Moral Foundations of Trust. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Vasu, Srisa Chandra. 1909. Yājñavalkyasmṛti. Allahabad, India: Pâninî Press.Google Scholar
Ibn, Warraq. 1995. Why I Am Not a Muslim. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus.Google Scholar
Weinbaum, Marvin G. 1999. Civic Culutre and Democracy in Pakistan. Asian Survey 36:639–54.Google Scholar
Weiner, Myron. 1987. Empirical Democratic Theory. In Competitive Elections in Developing Countries, ed. Weiner, Myron and Özudun, Ergun. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Weisser, Michael. 1979. Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Europe. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, James Q. 1983. Thinking about Crime. Rev. ed. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2001. World Development Report 2000/2001. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Zakaria, Fareed. 2003. The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Zimring, Franklin. 2003. The Contradictions of American Capital Punishment. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Cases Cited

Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972).Google Scholar