Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T20:25:24.096Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Comparative Tribal Constitutionalism: Membership Governance in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 December 2018

Kirsty Gover
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the “self‐governance era” of indigenous‐state relations, there is a growing interest in the first‐order question of tribal governance: who are the members of recognized tribes, and how are they chosen? Tribal constitutions contain formal tribal membership criteria but are not ordinarily in the public domain. This article presents findings from a study of the membership rules used in more than seven hundred current and historical tribal constitutions and codes. It offers a comparative analysis to explain significant differences between North American and Australasian tribal constitutionalism, particularly in the administration of descent, multiple membership, and disenrollment. It advances the argument that tribes self‐constitute in ways that are more relational and less ascriptive than is suggested in current political theory and policy; that existing representations of tribes obscure nontribal expressions of indigeneity, on which tribes depend; and that these expressions should be officially supported in public law and policy.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 35 , Issue 3 , Summer 2010 , pp. 689 - 762
Copyright
Copyright © American Bar Foundation, 2010 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Australia Office of the Registrar of Aboriginal Corporations. 2004. Model Rules. Canberra: Office of the Registrar of Aboriginal Corporations.Google Scholar
Australia Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations. 2008. A Guide to Writing Good Governance Rules for Prescribed Bodies Corporate and Registered Native Title Bodies Corporate. Canberra: Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations.Google Scholar
Australia Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations. 2009. The Rule Book: Condensed. 2009. Canberra: Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations.Google Scholar
Barry, Brian. 2001 Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multiculturalism. Cambridge: Polity.Google Scholar
Borrows, John. 2000. Landed Citizenship: Narratives of Aboriginal Political Participation. In Citizenship in Diverse Societies, ed. Kymlicka, Will and Norman, Wayne, 339–40. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Canada Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. 1996a. Restructuring the Relationship. Vol. 2, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Ottawa: Canada Communications Group Publishing.Google Scholar
Canada Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. 1996b. Perspectives and Realities. Vol. 4, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Ottawa: Canada Communications Group Publishing.Google Scholar
Canadian Human Rights Commission. 2008. Canadian Human Rights Commission Applauds Extension of Rights Law to First Nations. News release, June 18. http://www.chrc‐ccdp.ca/media_room/news_releases‐en.asp?id=479&content_type=2 (accessed December 1, 2009).Google Scholar
Centrelink. n.d. ABSTUDY [Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Study Assistance Scheme]. http://www.centrelink.gov.au/internet/internet.nsf/filestores/st028_0907/$file/st028_0907en.pdf (accessed January 31, 2010).Google Scholar
Charters, Claire. 2003a. Maori and BORA: The Fundamental Issues. New Zealand Law Journal December:459–63.Google Scholar
Charters, Claire. 2003b. Maori Beware the Bill of Rights Act! New Zealand Law Journal November:401–03.Google Scholar
Clatworthy, Stewart, and Four Directions Project Consultants. 2001. Re‐assessing the Population Impacts of Bill C‐31. Ottawa: Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development.Google Scholar
Clatworthy, Stewart, and Four Directions Project Consultants. 2005. Indian Registration, Membership and Population Change in First Nations Communities. Ottawa: Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development.Google Scholar
Clinton, Robert N., Goldberg, Carole, and Tsosie, Rebecca. 2003. American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System: Cases and Materials, 4th ed. Dayton, OH: LexisNexis Matthew Bender.Google Scholar
Dussias, Allison M. 1993. Geographically‐Based and Membership‐Based Views of Indian Tribal Sovereignty: The Supreme Court's Changing Vision. University of Pittsburgh Law Review 55:1–97.Google Scholar
Evans, Craig. 2002. Pueblo Nations Statewide Technology Assessment Final Report. http://www.internettechnologyservice.net/PuebloNations/resources/PuebloNations‐EXEC.doc (accessed December 1, 2009).Google Scholar
Four Directions Consulting Group. 1997. Implications of First Nations Demography: Final Report. http://dsp‐psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/R2‐340‐2004E.pdf (accessed December 2, 2009).Google Scholar
Gardiner‐Garden, John. 20002001. The Definition of Aboriginality. Research Note 18, Parliament of Australia, Parliamentary Library, Social Policy Group. http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/RN/2000‐01/01RN18.htm (accessed December 1, 2009).Google Scholar
Goldberg, Carole. 2006. Members Only: Designing Citizenship Requirements for Indian Nations, In American Indian Constitutional Reform and the Rebuilding of Native Nations, ed. Lemont, Eric D., 107–45. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Gover, Kevin. 2005. Statement before the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs Oversight Hearing on the Bureau of Indian Affairs Capacity and Mission, April 28, 1999. In Sovereignty, Colonialism and the Indigenous Nations: A Reader, ed. Porter, Robert Odawi, 321–27. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gover, Kirsty. 2009. Genealogy as Continuity: Explaining the Growing Preference for Descent Rules in United States Tribal Membership Governance. American Indian Law Review 33 (1): 243–309.Google Scholar
Gover, Kirsty. Forthcoming. Constitutionalizing Tribalism: Tribes, States and Membership Governance in the Western Settler States. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development. 2004. Fact Sheet: Key Statistics about Native America: September 2004. http://www.hks.harvard.edu/hpaied/documents/FactSheet‐HPAIED‐Sept2004_001.pdf (accessed March 10, 2010).Google Scholar
Hurley, Mary C. 2008. Legislative Summaries—C‐21: A Bill to Amend the Canadian Human Rights Act: Legislative. http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/LegislativeSummaries/Bills_ls.asp?lang=E&ls=c21&source=library_prb&Parl=39&Ses=2 (accessed January 31, 2010).Google Scholar
Idleman, Scott C. 2004. Multiculturalism and the Future of Tribal Sovereignty. Columbia Human Rights Law Review 35:589–660.Google Scholar
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. 1991. The Indian Act Past and Present: A Manual on Registration and Entitlement Legislation. Ottawa: Indian Registration and Band Lists Directorate.Google Scholar
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. 1999. You Wanted to Know: Federal Programs and Services for Registered Indians. http://www.ainc‐inac.gc.ca/ai/pubs/ywtk/ywtk‐eng.asp (accessed November 26, 2009).Google Scholar
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. 2008. Secure Certificate of Indian Status: Information Kit. http://www.ainc‐inac.gc.ca/br/is/ifk‐eng.asp (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Canadian Polar Commission, and Indian Specific Claims Commission. 2006. 2006–2007 Estimates: Report on Plans and Priorities. Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs.Google Scholar
Ivison, Duncan. 2003. The Logic of Aboriginal Rights. Ethnicities 3 (3): 321–34.Google Scholar
Kunesh, Patrice H. 2007. Banishment as Cultural Justice in Contemporary Tribal Legal Systems: A Postscript on Quair v. Sisco . New Mexico Law Review 37:479–86.Google Scholar
Kymlicka, Will. 1995. Multicultural Citizenship. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kymlicka, Will. 2001. American Multiculturalism and the Nations Within. In Political Theory and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, ed. Ivison, Duncan, Patton, Paul, and Sanders, Will, 216–29. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lemont, Eric. 2006. American Indian Constitutional Reform and the Rebuilding of Native Nations. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Levy, Jacob T. 2000. The Multiculturalism of Fear. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Macklem, Patrick. 2001. Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Melaku, Martha. 2003. Seeking Acceptance: Are the Black Seminoles Native Americans? Sylvia Davis v. The United States of America. American Indian Law Review 27:539–52.Google Scholar
Meyer, Melissa L. 1999. American Indian Blood Quantum Requirements: Blood Is Thicker than Family. In Over the Edge: Remapping the American West, ed. Matsumoto, Valerie J. and Allmendinger, Blake, 231–49. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Morrow, Mary Frances. 2009. BIA Indian Census Rolls: Records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. http://genealogy.about.com/odnative_american/a/census_rolls.htm (accessed November 25, 2009).Google Scholar
New Zealand Office of Treaty Settlements. 2000. Healing the Past, Building a Future: A Guide to Treaty of Waitangi Claims and Negotiations with the Crown. Auckland: Office of Treaty Settlements.Google Scholar
Ngai, Tahu. 2006. Ngai Tahu Introduces Savings Scheme for Whanau. Aug. 18, press release. http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/BU0610/S00360.htm (accessed November 26, 2009).Google Scholar
Ngai Tahu Maori Trust Board. 2002 [1967]. Te Runanga o Ngai Tahu, Ngai Tahu Kaumatua Alive in 1848. Issued as of January 1. http://www.ngaitahu.iwi.nz/Whakapapa‐Registration/NgaiTahu1848Census.pdf (accessed March 17, 2010).Google Scholar
Nixon, Richard. 1970. President's Special Message on Indian Affairs, July 8. Reproduced in Documents of United States Indian Policy. 2000. 3rd ed., ed. Prucha, Francis Paul, 256–28. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Ray, Alan. 2007. A Race or a Nation? Cherokee National Identity and the Status of Freedmen's Descendants. Michigan Journal of Race and Law 12:387–463.Google Scholar
Riley, Angela R. 2007. (Tribal) Sovereignty and Illiberalism. California Law Review 95:799–848.Google Scholar
Rosen, Mark D. 2002. Illiberal Societal Cultures, Liberalism, and American Constitutionalism. Journal of Contemporary Legal Issues 12:803–40.Google Scholar
Sharp, Andrew. 2002. Blood, Custom, and Consent: Three Kinds of Maori Groups and the Challenges They Present to Governments. University of Toronto Law Journal 52 (1): 9–37.Google Scholar
Snowden, , Rockwell, John, Tyndall, Wayne, and Smith, David. 2001. American Indian Sovereignty and Naturalization: It's a Race Thing. Nebraska Law Review 80:171–238.Google Scholar
Spruhan, Paul. 2006a. A Legal History of Blood Quantum in Federal Indian Law to 1935. South Dakota Law Review 51:1–50.Google Scholar
Spruhan, Paul. 2006b. Indian as Race / Indian as Political Status: Implementation of the Half‐Blood Requirement Under The Indian Reorganization Act, 1934–1945. Rutgers Race & Law Review 8:27–49.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. 2009. Aboriginal Peoples of Canada. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/analytic/companion/abor/canada.cfm (accessed March 10, 2010).Google Scholar
Statistics New Zealand/Te Tari Tatau. 2002. 2001 Census of Population and Dwellings Data Package: Module 4: Iwi. http://www.stats.govt.nz/Publications/UniStats/unistats/products‐and‐services/census‐of‐pop‐and‐dwellings‐data‐package/module‐04.aspx (accessed March 18, 2010).Google Scholar
Thornton, Russell. 1997. Tribal Membership Requirements and the Demography of “Old” and “New” Native Americans. Population Research and Policy Review 16:33–42.Google Scholar
Tsosie, Rebecca. 1997. American Indians and the Politics of Recognition: Soifer on Law, Pluralism, and Group Identity. Law & Social Inquiry 22 (2): 359–88.Google Scholar
US Bureau of the Census. 2002a. The Decennial Censuses from 1790 to 2000. 1880 Questionnaire: Schedule 1 “Indian Division.” Report of the Superintendent of the Census. http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/pol02marv‐pt1.pdf (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
US Bureau of the Census. 2002b. Measuring America: The Decennial Censuses 1790–2000. http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/pol02marv‐pt4.pdf (accessed November 25, 2009).Google Scholar
US Bureau of Indian Affairs. 2003. Indian Population and Labor Force Report http://www.indianaffairs.gov/idc/groups/public/documents/text/idc‐001777.pdf (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
US Department of the Interior. 2009. Budget Justifications 2009. Washington, DC: Bureau of Indian Affairs. http://www.doi.gov/budget/2009/index_for_2009.html (accessed January 31, 2010).Google Scholar
US General Accounting Office. 1999. Indian Self‐determination Act: Shortfalls in Indian Contract Support Costs Need to be Addressed. Washington, DC: Government Accounting Office.Google Scholar
Whelan, Frederick G. 1983. Prologue to Democratic Theory and the Boundary Problem. In Liberal Democracy, ed. Pennock, J. Roland and Chapman, John W., 13–47. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Cases Cited: Australia

Harrington‐Smith on behalf of the Wongatha People v. Western Australia (No 9) (2007) 238 A.L.R. 1.Google Scholar
Hayes v. Northern Territory (1999) 97 F.C.R. 32.Google Scholar
Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v. Victoria (2002) 214 C.L.R. 422.Google Scholar
Ngalakan People v. Northern Territory of Australia (2001) 112 F.C.R. 148.Google Scholar
Warria on behalf of the Kulkalgal v. State of Queensland (2004) F.C.A. 1572.Google Scholar
Western Australia v. Ward (2000) 99 F.C.R. 316.Google Scholar

United States

Cahto Tribe of the Laytonville Rancheria v. Pacific Regional Director, United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, 38 I.B.I.A. 244 (December 19, 2002).Google Scholar
Frederick Tomah et al. v. Acting Eastern Area Director, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 30 I.B.I.A. 92 (November 5, 1996).Google Scholar
Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez, 436 U.S. 49 (1978).Google Scholar

New Zealand

In re Tukua and Maketu C2B Block (2000) 116 Otorohanga MB 81.Google Scholar
Te Runanga o Muriwhenua & Ors v Te Runanga o Te Upoko o Te Ika Inc. (1996) 3 NZLR 10.Google Scholar

Statutes Cited: Australia

Corporations (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006 (Cth). http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/legislation (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
Indigenous Education (Targeted Assistance) Act 2000 (Cth). http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/legislation (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
Native Title Act 1993 (Cth). (http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/legislation (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
Native Title (Prescribed Bodies Corporate) Regulations. 1999 (Cth). http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/legislation (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
The Rules of Dauanalgaw (Torres Strait Islanders) Corporation. 2000. Doc. No. C‐AU‐8‐A.Google Scholar
Rules of the Djabugay Native Title Association. 2004. Doc. No. C‐AU‐30‐A.Google Scholar
Rules of the Jidi Jidi Aboriginal Corporation. 2000. Doc. No. C‐AU‐16‐A.Google Scholar
Rules of Mualgal Torres Strait Islanders Corporation. 1999. Doc. No. C‐AU‐6‐A.Google Scholar
Rules of the Western Desert Lands Aboriginal Corporation (Jamukurnu‐Yapalikunu). 2003. Doc. No. C‐AU‐21‐A.Google Scholar
Rules of the Yindjibarndi Aboriginal Corporation. 2004. Doc. No. C‐AU‐23‐A.Google Scholar

Canada

Indian Act (R.S.C.) 1985. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/StatutesByTitle/I.html (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
Bill C‐31—An Act to Amend the Indian Act (R.S.C) 1986. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/StatutesByTitle/I.html (accessed Jan. 29 2010).Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Adams Lake Indian Band. 1994. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐225‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Akwesasne. 1987. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐29‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Big Island Indian Band. 1987. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐17‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Butouche Mic Mac Indian Band. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐3‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Burnt Church First Nations. 1986. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐4‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Chemawawin First Nation, 1987. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐83‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation. 1987. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐64‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Cumberland House Cree Nation. 1985. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐97‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Heiltsuk Indian Band. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐160‐AGoogle Scholar
Membership Code of the Indian Birch Band. 1988. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐93‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Kootenay Nation St. Mary's Indian Band. n.d. Doc. No ME‐CA‐198‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Muskeg Lake Band. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐103‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Little Black River Band, n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐70‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Musqueam Indian Band. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐165‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Mowachaht Band of Indians. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐194‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Onegaming Indian Band. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐19‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Paul Band. 1987. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐130‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Serpent River Band of Objibway. 1987. Doc No. ME‐CA‐47‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Spanish River Band of Indians. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐35‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Uchucklesaht Band of Indians. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐215‐A.Google Scholar
Membership Code of the Wapekeka Band of Indians. n.d. Doc. No. ME‐CA‐51‐A.Google Scholar
Umbrella Final Agreement between the Government of Canada, the Council for Yukon Indians and the Government of the Yukon 1993. http://www.ainc‐inac.gc.ca/al/ldc/ccl/fagr/ykn/umb/umb‐eng.asp (accessed January 31, 2010).Google Scholar

New Zealand

Deed of Restatement and Amendment of Trust: Te Kotahitanga o Te Arawa Waka Fisheries Trust Board. 2005. Doc. No. C‐NZ‐21‐F.Google Scholar
Deed of Trust of the Ngati Apa ki te Waipounamu Trust. 2006. Doc. No. C‐NZ‐8‐D.Google Scholar
Deed of Trust of the Patiki Trust. 2006 Doc. No. C‐NZ‐3‐A.Google Scholar
Electoral Act. 1993. http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1993/0087/latest/DLM307519.html?search=ts_act_electoral+act_resel&p=1&sr=1 (accessed March 18, 2010).Google Scholar
Incorporated Societies Act. 1908. http://www.legislation.govt.nz/ (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
Maori Fisheries Act. 2004. http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2004/0078/latest/DLM311464.html?search=ts_act_maori+fisheries+act_resel&p=1&sr=1 (accessed March 18, 2010).Google Scholar
Rules of Muaupoko Tribal Authority Inc. 2005. Doc. No. C‐NZ‐1‐D.Google Scholar
Rules of Te Runanga o Ngati Apa Soc. Inc. 2006. Doc. No. C‐NZ‐32‐B.Google Scholar
Rules of Te Runanga o Raukawa Inc. 2004. Doc. No. C‐NZ‐12‐C.Google Scholar
Te Atiawa Manawhenua ki te Tau Ihu Trust: Replacement Deed of Trust. 2000. Doc No. C‐NZ‐23‐E.Google Scholar
Te Ohu Kai Moana, Mandated Iwi Organization Model Trust Deed. 2006 (in author's possession).Google Scholar
Te Runanga o Te Rarawa Deed of Trust. 1988. Doc. No. C‐NZ‐25‐A.Google Scholar
Treaty of Waitangi.1840. Schedule 1 of the Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975 http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1975/0114/latest/DLM435368.html (accessed March 18, 2010).Google Scholar

United States

An Act to provide for the extension of certain Federal benefits, services, and assistance to the Pascua Yaqui Indians of Arizona, and for other purposes. 1978.25 U.S.C. (2007).Google Scholar
Amended Constitution and By‐laws of the Reno‐Sparks Indian Colony. 1971. Doc. No. CE‐US‐238‐B (see the Appendix).Google Scholar
Amended Constitution and By‐laws of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California, Preamble. n.d. Doc. No. CE‐US‐321‐B.Google Scholar
Articles of Organization of the Santa Ynez Indian Band of the Santa Ynez Reservation, California. 1964. Doc. No. CE‐US‐259‐A.Google Scholar
Catawba Indian Tribe of South Carolina Land Claims Settlement Act. 1993. 25 U.S.C. (2007).Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐Laws for the Cachil Dehe Band of Wintun Indians of the Colusa Indian Community California. 1941. Doc. No. C‐US‐26‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐Laws for the Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria, California. 1936. Doc. No. C‐US‐120‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐Laws of the Agua Caliente Band of Mission Indians California. 1957. Doc. No. C‐US‐2‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Cedarville Rancheria, Modoc County, Cedarville, California. n.d. Doc. No. C‐US‐35‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐Laws of the Crow Tribe of Indians. 2001. Doc. No. C‐US‐70.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐Laws of the Ho Chunk Nation. 1994. Doc. No. C‐US‐100‐B.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma. 1985. Doc. No. C‐US‐111‐B.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐Laws of the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota Art. 1935. Doc. No. C‐US‐242‐B.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians. 1975. Doc. No. C‐US‐263‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution of the Crow Creek Sioux Tribe of Fort Thompson South Dakota. 1948. Doc. No. C‐US‐69‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution of the Timbisha Shoshone Indian Tribe. n.d. Doc. No CE‐US‐71‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution of the Wyandotte Tribe of Oklahoma. 1999. Doc. No. C‐US‐327‐B.Google Scholar
Coquille Restoration Act.1989. 25 U.S.C. (2007).Google Scholar
Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians Distribution of Judgment Funds Act 1987. 25 U.S.C. (2007).Google Scholar
Indian Entities Recognized and Eligible to Receive Services from the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, 73 Federal Register 13648 (Apri; 4, 2008).Google Scholar
Indian Entities Recognized and Eligible to Receive Services from the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, 74 Federal Register 40218 (August 11, 2009).Google Scholar
Indian Reorganization Act. 1934. 25 U.S.C. (2007).Google Scholar
Procedures for Establishing That an American Indian Group Exists as an Indian Tribe, 56 Federal Register 47,320 (September 18, 1991). 25 C.F.R. (2008).Google Scholar
Revisions of the Provisions for Governing the Upper Sioux Community. 1974. Doc. No. C‐US‐314‐A.Google Scholar
Siletz Indian Tribe Restoration Act of 1977. 25 U.S.C. (2007).Google Scholar
US Department of the Interior. Procedures for Establishing That an American Indian Group Exists as an Indian Tribe, 56 Federal Register 47320 (September 18, 1991).Google Scholar
US Department of the Interior. Proposed Rules on the Certificate of Degree of Indian or Alaska Native Blood, 65 Federal Register 20775 (proposed April 18, 2000.Google Scholar

Archival Documents

US Bureau of Indian Affairs.1932. Circular 2897 from Commissioner C. J. Rhoads to Superintendents and Others in Charge of Indians. Dec. 5. (Received from Scott Keep, Assistant Solicitor, Division of Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior. Copy in author's possession.)Google Scholar

References

Clinton, Robert, Goldberg, Carole, and Tsosie, Rebecca. 2003. American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal Systems, Cases and Materials, 4th ed. Newark, NJ: LexisNexis.Google Scholar
Haas, Theodore H. 1947. Ten Years of Tribal Government under the Indian Reorganization Act. Chicago: United States Indian Service. http://thorpe.ou.edu/IRA/IRAbook/tribalgovtp1‐12.htm (accessed February 2, 2010).Google Scholar
Spruhan, Paul. 2007. The Origins, Current Status, and Future Prospects of Blood Quantum as the Definition of Membership in the Navajo Nation. Tribal Law Journal 8:1–17.Google Scholar

Statutes Cited

Corporations (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006 (Cth). http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/legislation (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
Access to Information Act. 1985. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/A‐1/index.html (accessed February 3, 2010).Google Scholar
Champagne and Aishihik First Nations Constitution. 2000. Schedule A: Champagne and Aishihik First Nations Citizenship Code. Doc. No. MC‐CASG‐13‐A.Google Scholar
Indian Act (R.S.C.) 1985. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/StatutesByTitle/I.html (accessed Jan. 29 2010).Google Scholar
Umbrella Final Agreement between the Government of Canada, the Council for Yukon Indians and the Government of the Yukon 1993. http://www.ainc‐inac.gc.ca/al/ldc/ccl/fagr/ykn/umb/umb‐eng.asp (accessed January 31, 2010).Google Scholar
Official Information Act. 1982. http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1982/0156/latest/DLM64785.html?search=ts_act_official+information_resel&p=1&sr=1 (accessed February 3, 2010).Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation. 1967. Doc. No. C‐US‐55‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Sisseton‐Wahpeton Sioux Tribe, South Dakota. 1946. Doc. No. C‐US‐277‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians North Dakota. n.d. Doc. No. C‐US‐309‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution of the Seneca Nation of New York. 1898. Doc. No. CE‐US‐267‐A.Google Scholar
Corporations (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) Act 2006 (Cth). http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/legislation (accessed January 29, 2010).Google Scholar
Access to Information Act. 1985. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/A‐1/index.html (accessed February 3, 2010).Google Scholar
Champagne and Aishihik First Nations Constitution. 2000. Schedule A: Champagne and Aishihik First Nations Citizenship Code. Doc. No. MC‐CASG‐13‐A.Google Scholar
Indian Act (R.S.C.) 1985. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/StatutesByTitle/I.html (accessed Jan. 29 2010).Google Scholar
Umbrella Final Agreement between the Government of Canada, the Council for Yukon Indians and the Government of the Yukon 1993. http://www.ainc‐inac.gc.ca/al/ldc/ccl/fagr/ykn/umb/umb‐eng.asp (accessed January 31, 2010).Google Scholar
Official Information Act. 1982. http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1982/0156/latest/DLM64785.html?search=ts_act_official+information_resel&p=1&sr=1 (accessed February 3, 2010).Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation. 1967. Doc. No. C‐US‐55‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Sisseton‐Wahpeton Sioux Tribe, South Dakota. 1946. Doc. No. C‐US‐277‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution and By‐laws of the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians North Dakota. n.d. Doc. No. C‐US‐309‐A.Google Scholar
Constitution of the Seneca Nation of New York. 1898. Doc. No. CE‐US‐267‐A.Google Scholar