Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T18:24:23.819Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Liberal Policies, Punitive Effects: The Politics of Enforcement Discretion on the US-Mexico Border

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2020

Patrisia Macías-Rojas
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article examines why deportation and imprisonment for immigration offenses rose under presidential administrations that claimed to favor more “humane” approaches to immigration enforcement. I examine the politics of enforcement discretion on the US-Mexico border during the administrations of Bill Clinton (1993–2001) and Barack Obama (2009–17). Drawing on historical and ethnographic research, I argue that the Clinton and Obama administrations took a punitive humanitarian approach to enforcement discretion aimed at punishing “illegal immigration” at the border while protecting “legal immigrants” with long-standing ties to the United States from deportation. The findings show that such an approach extended crime control to US-Mexico border enforcement. This blend of humanitarian and punitive approaches systematized criminal enforcement priorities and expanded the discretion of border agents to deport and imprison. Just as other scholars have shown how liberal reform contributed to the rise of the carceral state, this article shows how immigration policies that blended humanitarianism and security punished the very people such policies were designed to protect.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 46 , Issue 1 , February 2021 , pp. 69 - 91
Copyright
© 2020 American Bar Foundation

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Alexander, Michelle. 2012. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: New Press.Google Scholar
American Bar Association. 2004. American Justice through Immigrants’ Eyes. Washington, DC: American Bar Association.Google Scholar
Armenta, Amada. 2012. “From Sherriff’s Deputies to Immigration Officers: Screening Immigrant Status in a Tennessee Jail.” Law and Policy 34, no. 2: 191–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armenta, Amada 2016. “Between Public Service and Social Control: Policing Dilemmas in the Era of Immigration Enforcement.” Social Problems 63: 111–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armenta, Amada 2017. Protect, Serve, and Deport: The Rise of Policing as Immigration Enforcement. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beal, Tom 2011. “Florence: A Prison Town, Sure, but Arizona in Miniature, too.” Arizona Daily Star, November 27.Google Scholar
Beckett, Katherine, and Evans, Heather. 2015. “Crimmigration at the Local Level: Criminal Case Processing in the Shadow of Deportation.” Law and Society Review 49, no. 1: 241–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cacho, Lisa Marie. 2012. Social Death: Racialized Rightlessness and the Criminalization of the Unprotected. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Calavita, K. 1992. Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the INS. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Catholic Legal Immigration Network. 2000. Placing Immigrants at Risk: The Impact of Our Laws and Policies on American Families. Washington, DC: Catholic Legal Immigration Network.Google Scholar
Chacon, Jennifer M. 2009. “Managing Migration through Crime.” Columbia Law Review 109: 135–48.Google Scholar
Chishti, M., Pierce, S., and Bolter, J.. 2017. The Obama Record on Deportations: Deporter-in-Chief or Not? Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Chomsky, Aviva 2017. “How Bill Clinton and Barak Obama Laid the Groundwork for Trump’s Immigration Policies.” Tom Dispatch. https://truthout.org/articles/how-bill-clinton-and-barack-obama-laid-the-groundwork-for-trump-s-immigration-policies/.Google Scholar
Clinton, William Jefferson. 1996. Statement on Signing the Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations Act, 1997. Washington, DC: Office of the Press Secretary, White House.Google Scholar
Coleman, Mathew. 2012. “The ‘Local’ Migration State: Site-Specific Devolution of Immigration Enforcement in the U.S. South.” Law and Policy 34, no. 2: 159–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copp, Tara. 2018. “White House Approves Use of Force, Some Law Enforcement Roles for Border Troops.” Military Times, November 21.Google Scholar
Cornelius, W. A. 2005. “Controlling ‘Unwanted’ Immigration: Lessons from the United States, 1993–2004.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31, no. 4: 775–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coutin, Susan Bibler. 2010. “Confined Within: National Territories as Zones of Confinement.” Political Geography 29, no. 4: 200–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Angela J., 1998. “Prosecution and Race: The Power and Privilege of Discretion.” Fordham Law Review 67, no. 1: 13–67.Google Scholar
Davis, Angela J., 2007. Arbitrary Justice: The Power of the American Prosecutor. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
De Genova, N. P. 2002. “Migrant ‘Illegality’ and Deportability in Everyday Life.” Annual Review of Anthropology 31, no. 1: 419–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demleitner, N. V. 2002. “Immigration Threats and Rewards: Effective Law Enforcement Tools in the War on Terrorism.” Emory Law Journal 51: 1059–94.Google Scholar
Demleitner, N. V. 2004. “Misguided Prevention: The War on Terrorism as a War on Immigrant Offenders and Immigration Violators.” Criminal Law Bulletin 40: 550–75.Google Scholar
Dowling, Julie, and Inda, Jonathan, eds. 2013. Governing Immigration through Crime: A Reader. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, Ingrid V. 2010. “Prosecuting Immigration.” Northwestern University Law Review. 104, no. 4: 1281–1360.Google Scholar
Eagly, Ingrid V. 2013. “Criminal Justice for Noncitizens: An Analysis of Variation in Local Enforcement.” New York University Law Review 88: 1126–1223.Google Scholar
Eagly, I. V., and Shafer, S.. 2015. “A National Study of Access to Counsel in Immigration Court.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 164: 1–91.Google Scholar
Ellermann, Antje 2009. States against Migrants: Deportation in Germany and the United States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emanuel, Rahm. 1996. Memorandum to the President: Domestic Policy. Little Rock, AR: William J. Clinton Presidential Library.Google Scholar
Flyn, Meagan. 2019. “Conditions at Migrant Detention Centers Are ‘Horrendous.’ Trump, Pence Blame Democrats.” Washington Post, June 24.Google Scholar
Gordon, Rebecca 2014. Mainstreaming Torture: Ethical Approaches in the Post-9/11 United States. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana, and Krogstad, Jens Manuel. 2014. U.S. Deportations of Immigrants Reach Record High in 2013. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.Google Scholar
Gottschalk, Marie 2014. Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Greene, J. A., Carson, B., and Black, A.. 2016. Indefensible: A Decade of Mass Incarceration of Migrants Prosecuted for Crossing the Border. Austin, TX: Grassroots Leadership, Justice Strategies.Google Scholar
Haberman, Maggie. 2018. “Trump Blames Democrats over Deaths of Migrant Children in U.S. Custody.” New York Times, December 29.Google Scholar
Harwood, Edwin 1986. In Liberty’s Shadow: Illegal Aliens and Immigration Law Enforcement. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.Google Scholar
Hernandez, D., Eason, J. M., Goldmith, P., Abel, R., and McNeeley, A.. 2017. “With Mass Deportation Comes Mass Punishment: Punitive Capacity, Health, and Standards in U.S. Immigrant Detention.” In Routledge Handbook on Immigration and Crime, edited by Miller, H. and Peguero, A., 260–69. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Heyman, Josiah 1995. “Putting Power in the Anthropology of Bureaucracy: The Immigration and Naturalization Service at the Mexico-United States Border.” Current Anthropology 36, no. 2: 261–87.Google Scholar
Heyman, Josiah 1998. “State Effects on Labor Exploitation: The INS and Undocumented Immigrants at the Mexico-United States Border.” Critique of Anthropology 18, no. 2: 157–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hing, Bill Ong. 1995. “Border Patrol Abuse: Evaluating Complaint Procedures.” Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 9: 757–99.Google Scholar
Hing, Bill Ong. 2006. Deporting Our Souls: Values, Morality, and Immigration Policy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holder, Eric. 2010. Department Policy on Charging and Sentencing: Memorandum to All Federal Prosecutors, May 19. http://subjecttoinquiry.default.wp1.lexblog.com/files/2013/09/Holder-Charging-Memo-5-19-10.pdf.Google Scholar
Jackman, M. R. 2002. “Violence in Social Life.” Annual Review of Sociology 28, no. 1: 387–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joao Guia, Maria, van der Woude, Maartje, and van der Leun, Joanne, eds. 2013. Social Control and Justice: Crimmigration in the Age of Fear. The Hague: Eleven International Publishing.Google Scholar
Johnson, Jeh Charles. 2014. Policies for the Apprehension, Detention and Removal of Undocumented Immigrants. Washington, DC: US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/14_1120_memo_prosecutorial_discretion.pdf.Google Scholar
Johnson, Kevin R. 1995. “An Essay on Immigration Politics, Popular Democracy, and California’s Proposition 187: The Political Relevance and Legal Irrelevance of Race.” Washington Law Review 70: 629–74.Google Scholar
Johnson, Kevin R. 2000. “The Case against Race Profiling in Immigration Enforcement.” Washington University Law Quarterly 78: 676–736.Google Scholar
Johnson, Kevin R. 2004. “Racial Profiling after September 11: The Department of Justice’s 2003 Guidelines.” Loyola Law Review 50: 67–87.Google Scholar
Kang, S. D. 2017. The INS on the Line: Making Immigration Law on the US-Mexico Border, 1917–2054. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanstroom, Daniel. 2000. “Deportation, Social Control, and Punishment: Some Thoughts About Why Hard Laws Make Bad Cases.” Harvard Law Review 113, no. 8: 1890–1935.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanstroom, Daniel 2007. Deportation Nation: Outsiders in American History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kanstroom, Daniel 2012. Aftermath: Deportation Law and the New American Diaspora. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanstroom, Daniel 2014. “Smart(er) Enforcement: Rethinking Removal, Structuring Proportionality, and Imagining Graduated Sanctions.” Journal of Law and Policy 30: 465–95.Google Scholar
Kelly, John. 2017. Memorandum: Implementing the President’s Border Security and Immigration Enforcement Improvements Policies. Washington, DC: US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3468371-doc00343320170218152612.htmlGoogle Scholar
King, Jamilah. 2010. “Arpaio Arrests Dozens in SB 1070 Protests: Hundreds Take to the Streets in Arizona, and Beyond.” Colorlines, July 30. https://www.colorlines.com/articles/arpaio-arrests-dozens-sb-1070-protests.Google Scholar
Kubrin, Charis E., Zatz, Marjorie, and Martínez, Roberto, eds. 2012. Punishing Immigrants: Policy, Politics, and Injustice. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latino Policy Forum 2011. “Un-Clogging the System: Obama Administration Announces ‘Common-Sense’ Approach to Enforcement: Stop-Gap Measure Is Much-Needed Step in Right Direction, but Falls Far Short of Real Reform.” Latino Policy Forum, August 19. http://www.latinopolicyforum.org/news/8.19.11CommonSenseEnforcement.pdf.Google Scholar
Light, Michael T., Lopez, Mark Hugo, and Gonzales-Barrera, Ana. 2014. “The Rise of Federal Immigration Crimes: Unlawful Reentry Drives Growth.” Pew Research Center’s Hispanic Trends Project. http://www.pewhispanic.org/2014/03/18/the-rise-of-federal-immigration-crimes/.Google Scholar
Lipsky, Michael 1980. Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
López, G. P. 2011. “Don’t We Like Them Illegal.” University of California, Davis, Law Review 45: 1711–44.Google Scholar
Lopez, Mark H., Gonzalez-Barrera, A., and Motel, S.. 2011. As Deportations Rise to Record Levels, Most Latinos Oppose Obama’s Policy. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, December. http://www.pewhispanic.org/2011/12/28/as-deportations-rise-torecord-levels-most-latinos-oppose-obamas-policy.Google Scholar
Lopez, Mark H., and Light, Michael T., 2009. “A Rising Share: Hispanics and Federal Crime.” Pew Research Center’s Hispanic Trends Project. http://www.pewhispanic.org/2009/02/18/a-rising-share-hispanics-and-federal-crime/.Google Scholar
Los Angeles Times. 2009. “Gustavo de la Vina Dies at 70: Former US Border Patrol Chief.” October 29. http://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-gustavo-delavina29-2009oct29-story.html.Google Scholar
Lydgate, J. J. 2010. “Assembly-line Justice: A Review of Operation Streamline.” California Law Review 98(2): 481–544.Google Scholar
Macías-Rojas, Patrisia. 2016. From Deportation to Prison: The Politics of Immigration Enforcement in Post-Civil Rights America. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macías-Rojas, Patrisia 2018a. “Immigration and the War on Crime: Law and Order Politics and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996.” Journal on Migration and Human Security 6, no. 1: 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macías-Rojas, Patrisia 2018b. “The Prison the Border: An Ethnography of Shifting Security Logics.” Qualitative Sociology 41, no. 2: 221–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Margulies, Joseph 2007. Guantanamo and the Abuse of Presidential Power. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Margulies, Joseph 2014. “Coming Out of the Turn: Charting a New Course in Criminal Justice.” Verdict. http://verdict.justia.com/2014/01/22/coming-turn-charting-new-course-criminal-justice.Google Scholar
Marquez-Benitez, G., and Pallares, A.. 2016. “Not One More: Linking Civil Disobediences and Public Anti-Deportation Campaigns.” North American Dialogue 19, no. 1: 13–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, David A. 2012. “A Defense of Immigration-Enforcement Discretion: The Legal and Policy Flaws in Kris Kobach’s Latest Crusade.” Yale Law Journal Forum 122: 167–83.Google Scholar
Meissner, Doris. 2000. Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion. Washington DC: US Department of Justice: Immigration and Naturalization Service. http://iwp.legalmomentum.org/reference/additional-materials/immigration/enforcement-detention-and-criminal-justice/government-documents/22092970-INS-Guidance-Memo-Prosecutorial-Discretion-Doris-Meissner-11-7-00.pdf/view.Google Scholar
Meissner, Doris, Kerwin, Donald, Chisti, Mazaffar, and Bergeron, Claire. 2013. Immigration Enforcement in the United States: The Rise of a Formidable Machinery. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Miller, Teresa A. 2003. “Citizenship and Severity: Recent Immigration Reforms and the New Penology.” Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 17: 611–66.Google Scholar
Morawetz, N. 2000. “Understanding the Impact of the 1996 Deportation Law and the Limited Scope of Proposed Reforms.” Defense of the Alien 23: 1–30.Google Scholar
Morris, Helen 1997. “Zero Tolerance: The Increasing Criminalization of Immigration Law.” Interpreter Releases 74, no. 33: 1317–26.Google Scholar
Morton, John T. 2011a. Civil Immigration Enforcement: Priorities for the Apprehension, Detention, and Removal of Aliens. Washington, DC: US Immigration and Customs Enforcement. http://www.ice.gov/doclib/news/releases/2011/110302washingtondc.pdf (initially released June 30, 2010).Google Scholar
Morton, John T. 2011b. Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion Consistent with the Civil Immigration Enforcement Priorities of the Agency for the Apprehension, Detention, and Removal of Aliens. Washington, DC: US Immigration and Customs Enforcement. http://www.ice.gov/doclib/secure-communities/pdf/prosecutorial-discretion-memo.pdf.Google Scholar
Motivans, Mark. 2012. Immigration Offenders in the Federal Justice System, 2010. Washington DC: Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4392.Google Scholar
Motomura, Hiroshi. 1992. “The Curious Evolution of Immigration Law: Procedural Surrogates for Substantive Constitutional Rights.” Columbia Law Review 92, no. 7: 1625–1704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Motomura, Hiroshi 2010. “The Discretion That Matters: Federal Immigration Enforcement, State and Local Arrests, and the Civil-Criminal Line.” University of California Los Angeles Law Review 58, no. 6: 1819–58.Google Scholar
Motomura, Hiroshi 2012. Prosecutorial Discretion in Context: How Discretion Is Exercised throughout Our Immigration System. Washington DC: Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Council. http://www.immigrationpolicy.org/special-reports/prosecutorial-discretion-context-how-discretion-exercised-throughout-our-immigration.Google Scholar
Murakawa, Naomi. 2014. The First Civil Right: How Liberals Built Prison America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nevins, Joseph. 2010a. Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond: The War on “Illegals” and the Remaking of the US-Mexico Boundary. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nevins, Joseph 2010b. “Security First: The Obama Administration and Immigration ‘Reform.’” North American Congress on Latin America Report on the Americas 43, no. 1: 32–36.Google Scholar
Ngai, Mae. 2004. Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Noferi, M., and Koulish, R.. 2014. “The Immigration Detention Risk Assessment.” Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 29: 45–94.Google Scholar
Obama, B. 2016. “The President’s Role in Advancing Criminal Justice Reform.” Harvard Law Review 130: 811–66.Google Scholar
Olivas, Michael A. 2012. “Dreams Deferred: Deferred Action, Prosecutorial Discretion, and the Vexing Case(s) of Dream Act Students.” William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal 21, no. 2: 463–547.Google Scholar
Paik, A. N. 2016. Rightlessness: Testimony and Redress in US Prison Camps since World War II. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preston, Julia. 2010. “Illegal Immigrant Students Protest at McCain Office.” New York Times, May 17. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/18/us/18dream.html.Google Scholar
Preston, Julia 2013. “Nine in Deportation Protest Are Held in Bid to Re-enter U.S.” New York Times, July 23.Google Scholar
Preston, Julia 2017. “The Immigration Policy That Ate the Justice Department.” The Marshall Project, April 16. https://www.themarshallproject.org/2017/04/16/the-immigration-policy-that-ate-the-justice-department#.0tf0lt0Kx.Google Scholar
Provine, Doris Marie, and Lewis, Paul G.. 2014. “Shades of Blue: Local Police, Legality, and Immigration Law.” In Constructing Immigrant “Illegality”: Critiques, Experiences, and Responses, edited by Menjívar, Cecilia and Kanstroom, Daniel, 298–324. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Provine, D. M., Varsanyi, M. W., Lewis, P. G., and Decker, S. H.. 2016. Policing Immigrants: Local Law Enforcement on the Front Lines. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richie, Beth. 2012. Arrested Justice: Black Women, Violence, and America’s Prison Nation. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Romero, M. 2006. “Racial Profiling and Immigration Law Enforcement: Rounding Up of Usual Suspects in the Latino Community.” Critical Sociology 32, no. 2–3: 447–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenblum, Marc R. 2012. Border Security: Immigration Enforcement between Ports of Entry. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.Google Scholar
Rosenblum, Marc R., and McCabe, Kristen. 2014. Deportation and Discretion: Reviewing the Record and Options for Change. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Rosenblum, Marc R., and Meissner, Doris 2014. The Deportation Dilemma: Reconciling tough and Humane Enforcement. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Sacchetti, Maria. 2019. “Trump Administration to Expand Its Power to Deport Undocumented Immigrants.” Washington Post, July 22.Google Scholar
Sarat, A., and Silbey, S.. 1988. “The Pull of the Policy Audience.” Law & Policy 10, no. 2–3: 97–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scalia, John. 1996. Non-Citizens in the Federal Criminal Justice System, 1984–1994. Washington, DC: US Bureau of Justice Statistics.Google Scholar
Schmitt, Glenn R., and Konfrst, Hyun J.. 2015. Overview of Federal Criminal Cases: Fiscal Year 2014. Washington, DC: United States Sentencing Commission.Google Scholar
Schuck, Peter H. 1984. “The Transformation of Immigration Law.” Columbia Law Review 84, no. 1: 1–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sessions, Jeff. 2017. Memorandum for All Federal Prosecutors: Renewed Commitment to Criminal Immigration Enforcement. Washington, DC: Office of the Attorney General.Google Scholar
Sessions, Jeff 2018. Memorandum for Federal Prosecutors along the Southwest Border: Zero-Tolerance for Offences under 8. U.S.C. 1325(a). Washington, DC: Office of the Attorney General.Google Scholar
Simon, Jonathan 2007. Governing through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Skelton, George. 1993. “Feinstein Takes Immigration Out of the Closet.” Los Angeles Times, 12 July.Google Scholar
Smith, Lamar, and Grant, Edward R.. 1996. “Immigration Reform: Seeking the Right Reasons.” St. Mary’s Law Journal 28: 883–94.Google Scholar
Stumpf, J. 2006. “The Crimmigration Crisis: Immigrants, Crime and Sovereign Power.” American University Law Review 56, no. 2: 367–419.Google Scholar
Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse. 2007. Immigration Enforcement: The Rhetoric, the Reality. Syracuse, NY: Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse Immigration.Google Scholar
Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse. 2010. Arizona Federal Prosecutions Driven to Record Highs. Syracuse, NY: Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse Immigration.Google Scholar
Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse. 2011. Illegal Reentry Becomes Top Criminal Charge. Syracuse, NY: Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse Immigration.Google Scholar
Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse. 2013. Where Individuals Enter ICE Custody: State-by-State Details. Syracuse, NY: Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse Immigration.Google Scholar
Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse. 2019. ICE Focus Shifts Away from Serious Criminals. Syracuse, NY: Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse Immigration.Google Scholar
Trump, Donald. 2017. Executive Order: Border Security and Immigration Enforcement Improvements—The White House, Executive Order no. 13767, 82 FR 8793, January 25. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-border-security-immigration-enforcement-improvements/.Google Scholar
US Border Patrol. 1998. “U.S. Border Patrol: Universal Border Enforcement Options: Arizona Operations Plan” (on file with the author).Google Scholar
US Commission on Civil Rights. 1980. The Tarnished Golden Door: Civil Rights Issues in Immigration: A Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED198197.pdf.Google Scholar
US Congress. 1928. “Eugenical Aspects of Deportation: Hearings before the United States House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization.” 70th Congress, 1st Session; 69th Congress, 1st Session, April 28, 1926.Google Scholar
US Congress. 1996. Making Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1997, House Report no. 104-863. Washington, DC: US Congress.Google Scholar
US Customs and Border Protection. 2012. 2012–16 Border Patrol Strategic Plan: The Mission—Protect America. Washington, DC: US Department of Homeland Security.Google Scholar
Wadhia, Shoba Sivaprasad. 2010. “The Role of Prosecutorial Discretion in Immigration Law.” Connecticut Public Interest Law Journal 9, no. 2: 243–301.Google Scholar
Wadhia, Shoba Sivaprasad. 2011. The Morton Memo and Prosecutorial Discretion: An Overview. Washington, DC: Immigration Policy Center.Google Scholar
Wadhia, Shoba Sivaprasad. 2015. Beyond Deportation: The Role of Prosecutorial Discretion in Immigration Cases. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissinger, George 1996. Law Enforcement and the INS: A Participant Observation Study of Control Agents. New York: University Press of America.Google Scholar
Welch, Michael 2002. Detained: Immigration Laws and the Expanding I.N.S. Jail Complex. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Wildes, Leon 1976. “The Nonpriority Program of the Immigration and Naturalization Service Goes Public: The Litigative Use of the Freedom of Information Act.” San Diego Law Review 14: 42–75.Google Scholar
Zatz, Marjorie S., and Rodriguez, Nancy. 2014. “The Limits of Discretion: Challenges and Dilemmas of Prosecutorial Discretion in Immigration Enforcement.” Law & Social Inquiry 39, no. 3: 666–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zatz, Marjorie S., and Rodriguez, Nancy 2015. Dreams and Nightmares: Immigration Policy, Youth, and Families. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

CASES CITED

Padilla v. Kentucky, 559 US 356 (2010).Google Scholar

STATUTES CITED

Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act (DREAM Act), Sess. 3992, 111th Cong (2009–10). https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/senate-bill/3992.Google Scholar
Freedom of Information Act Freedom of Information Act, 5 USC § 552 (1974).Google Scholar
Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act, 8 USC § 1101 (1996).Google Scholar
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Pub. L. 89-236, 79 Stat. 911 (1965).Google Scholar
Public Law no. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009-546 (1996).Google Scholar