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“South Africa is the Mississippi of the world”: Anti-Apartheid Activism through Domestic Civil Rights Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2019

Joanna L. Grisinger
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Abstract

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a small group of antiapartheid activists, led by the American Committee on Africa and chair of the House Subcommittee on Africa Rep. Charles Diggs Jr., launched a campaign against South African Airways' new flights into the United States. Using the legal and political strategies of the American civil rights movement, and the fragmentation of power within the American political system, activists tried to turn South African apartheid into an American civil rights problem that American government institutions could address. The strategy was indebted to the political and legal strategies of the civil rights movement, but framing demands around existing civil rights law necessarily limited what activists could ask for and what domestic institutions could provide. In practice, the campaign's successes were limited and legalistic; where domestic civil rights law directly conflicted with apartheid law, airlines could comply with the former without really challenging the latter. And the foreign policy context meant more failures than successes, as domestic legal institutions were reluctant to involve themselves with foreign policy concerns. Their successes and failures nonetheless tell us much about legal mobilization and institutional behavior in a period of globalization where sovereignty and jurisdictional lines were overlapping and conflicting.

Type
Original Article
Information
Law and History Review , Volume 38 , Issue 4 , November 2020 , pp. 843 - 881
Copyright
Copyright © the American Society for Legal History, Inc. 2019

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Footnotes

She thanks Danny Greene, Alex Lichtenstein, Kate Masur, Sara Mayeux, Quinn Mulroy, Tom Ogorzalak, Susan Pearson, Justin Richland, Justin Simard, James Sparrow, Tracy Steffes, Chloe Thurston, Alvin Tillery, and Kimberly Welch for their critical comments and superb advice. She also thanks workshop participants at Northwestern University and the Chicago Legal History Workshop at the American Bar Foundation, and audiences at the Policy History Conference and the American Society for Legal History annual meeting. Elizabeth Friedman provided excellent research assistance. The author thanks archivists at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center at Howard University; the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington, DC and College Park, Maryland; the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum; and the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library. This project profited immensely from the resources of the Northwestern University Library, which houses a dedicated Transportation Library across the hall from the world class Melville J. Herskovits Library of African Studies.

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37. 33 Fed. Reg. 12113 (August 27, 1968).

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45. Gappert to Joseph Palmer II, November 19, 1968, Folder AV 6 S AFR 1/1/67, Box 553, CFPF:E, RG 59, NACP.

46. Ibid.

47. Federal Aviation Act, § 402(f).

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50. Draft, “Memorandum Regarding Revocation of the Foreign Air Carrier Permit Awarded to South African Airways, November 7, 1968” n.d., 3, Folder 14, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

51. Ibid.

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53. Gappert to Representative John Conyers Jr., February 28, 1969, Folder 14, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records. (A handwritten note indicates that a “similar letter” was sent to nine other “liberal Congressmen,” a third letter was sent to “GOP Congressmen,” and a fourth letter was sent to “DC groups.”)

54. Floyd B. McKissick to Crooker, May 12, 1969, Docket 20054, RG 197, NACP.

55. James T. Harris, Jr. to Gappert (copying Crooker), April 8, 1969, 1, Docket 20054, RG 197, NACP.

56. Abdulrahim Abby Farah, Chair, to Secretary-General U Thant, February 20, 1969, 2, U.N. Doc. S/9019.

57. ACOA, Fly the Last Ocean flyer, Folder 22, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

58. Sapa-Reuter-A.P., “S.A.'s flag trampled on as airliner lands at N.Y.,” Capetown Cape Argus, February 24, 1969; and “Protest March Greets S.A.A. in New York,” The Nationalist, February 25, 1969, both in Folder 25, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

59. Draft, “Thoughts on NYT story on S.A.A.” 1969, 2, Folder 17, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

60. Raymond Heard, “U.S. Protests Planned are for S.A. Air Link,” Rand Daily Mail, February 4, 1969, 5; “Protests Threat to New S.A.A. Flight,” Cape Times, February 5, 1969, “Protests when S.A.A. Plane Lands at New York,” Johannesburg Star, February 5, 1969, and Natal Mercury, February 4, 1969, all in Folder 25, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records; Reuters, “South African Jet Due Here Monday,” New York Times, February 22, 1969, 58; “Meanwhile, Back in the Slush,” New York Times, February 24, 1969, 39; and “U.S. Betrays UN Embargo of South African Jet Service,” Baltimore Afro-American, March 15, 1969, 22. See also Pirie, “Aviation, Apartheid and Sanctions,” 234.

61. ACOA, Draft, “Anatomy of a Campaign,” September 2, 1969, 4, Folder 20, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records; Glenn Douglass, “Ex-Newsmen, 4 Others Nabbed as They Protest South Africa Flights,” Chicago Daily Defender, April 12, 1969, 4; and “S.A.A. passengers get leaflets,” Rand Daily Mail, March 11, 1961, 1.

62. Crooker to Houser, March 26, 1969, Folder 17, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

63. John W. Dregge, Director, Community and Congressional Relations, to multiple correspondents (form letter), April 4, 1969, Docket 20054, RG 197, NACP.

64. The CAB had been reluctant to take any action about airport segregation years earlier, instead directing parties to the Justice Department. See Dixon, Robert G. Jr., “Civil Rights in Air Transportation and Government Initiative,” Virginia Law Review 49 (1963): 205–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Barnes, Journey from Jim Crow, 141, 200; and Ortlepp, Jim Crow Terminals.

65. Federal Aviation Act of 1958, §102.

66. Chicago & Southern Air Lines, Inc. v. Waterman Steamship Corp., 333 US 103, 109 (1948).

67. Caves, Air Transport and its Regulators, 270–99.

68. Robert Ellsworth, Assistant to the President, to Houser, February 17, 1969, Folder [GEN] CA 7 Cases-Decisions [1969–70], Box 13, WHCF:SF CA, RNPL.

69. Houser to Nixon, April 10, 1969, Folder [GEN] CA 7 Cases-Decisions [1969–70], WHCF:SF CA, RNPL. An April 10 memo from Ellsworth affixed to the letter noted: “No further answer to this letter.”

70. Coker, Christopher, The United States and South Africa, 1968–1985: Constructive Engagement and Its Critics (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1986), 15–126Google Scholar; Halperin, and Clapp, , Bureaucratic Politics and Foreign Policy; El-Khawas, Mohamed A. and Cohen, Barry, eds., The Kissinger Study of Southern Africa: National Security Study Memorandum 39 (Secret) (Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill & Co., 1976)Google Scholar; and Thomas, The American Predicament.

71. State Department telegram, Action: Amembassy, Gaberones, March 17, 1969, Folder AV 6 S AFR 1/1/67, Box 553, CFPF:E, RG 59, NACP.

72. Gappert to Diggs, memorandum, March 25, 1969, Folder 17, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU; draft speeches, Folder 23, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

73. 115 Cong. Rec. 7791 (March 26, 1969).

74. Ibid., 7795.

75. Ibid.

76. On Congress's previous inattention to South Africa, see Berry, Faith, “The Reluctant Congress,” in Southern Africa: A Time for Change, ed. Daniels, George M. (New York: Friendship Press Inc., 1969), 80–84Google Scholar.

77. South Africa and United States Foreign Policy: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Africa of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 1969, 3.

78. Ibid., 13.

79. Ibid., 16.

80. Ibid., 18–20.

81. Ibid., 34.

82. Rev. Herschel Halbert, Secretary, International Affairs, Episcopal Church, to Diggs, April 25, 1969, printed in South Africa and United States Foreign Policy, Appendix B, 80.

83. H.R. 12042, 91st Cong., 1st sess. (1969), 1, Folder 14, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

84. Civil Rights Act, Pub. L. No. 88–352, 78 Stat. 241, Title VI (1964).

85. H.R. 12042.

86. Proposed Amendment to the Federal Aviation Act by the American Committee on Africa, South Africa and United States Foreign Policy, Appendix B, 78.

87. Gappert, Gary, “Washington Letter,” Africa Today 16 (1969): 22–24, at 23Google Scholar.

88. United States-South African Relations: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Africa of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, part 1, 89th Cong. 2d sess., 83–91 (1966) (statement of Dr. Vernon McKay, Director, Program of African Studies, Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies); United States-South African Relations: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Africa of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, part 3, 89th Cong. 2d sess. (1966); Lake, “Caution and Concern,” 302–12; Burgess, Julian, du Plessis, Esau, Murray, Roger, Fraenkel, Peter, Harvey, Rosanne, Laurence, John, Ripkin, Peter and Rogers, Barbara, The Great White Hoax: South Africa's International Propaganda Machine (London: Africa Bureau, 1977)Google Scholar; Howe, Russell Warren and Trott, Sarah Hays, The Power Peddlers: How Lobbyists Mold America's Foreign Policy (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1977), ch. 4Google Scholar; Hull, Galen, “South Africa's Propaganda War: A Bibliographic Essay,” African Studies Review 22 (1979): 79–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Thomson, U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Apartheid South Africa, 66; and Irwin, “A Wind of Change?”

89. Whitney Gillilland, Acting Chairman, CAB to Representative Harley O. Staggers, July 10, 1970; David M. Abshire, Assistant Secretary for Congressional Relations, State Department to Staggers, July 31, 1970; and James A. Washington Jr., General Counsel, Department of Transportation to Staggers, July 31, 1970; all in Folder H.R. 12042, 91st Cong., House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Records of the United States House of Representatives, Record Group 233 (hereafter RG 233), National Archives and Records Administration, Washington DC (hereafter NARA).

90. Such perks were common; the CAB's chief hearing examiner was also on this flight. Nonetheless, ACOA was “appalled” by Representative Samuel N. Friedel's flight. Gappert to Friedel, April 30, 1969, printed in South Africa and United States Foreign Policy, Appendix B, 77; see also Lillian Wiggins, “Friedel, Holiday Inns Hit on S. Africa links,” Baltimore Afro-American, May 17, 1969, 1. Friedel defended his civil rights record in an extension of remarks in the House. 115 Cong. Rec. 14267 (May 28, 1969).

91. Houser to Nixon, January 28, 1969, 2, Folder [GEN] CA 7 Cases-Decisions [1969–70], Box 13, WHCF:SF CA, RNPL.

92. ACOA, “South Africa Scores Again as South African Airways Bids for U.S. Tourists,” January 28, 1969, 3, Folder 14, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

93. ACOA, “A Black Tourist's Guide to South Africa,” February 1969, 3, Folder 18, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

94. Ibid., 1.

95. Ibid., 2.

96. “Grave Implications for South Africa of Her Official Policy on Non-white Tourists,” Southern Africa's Travel and Trade News Pictorial, June 4, 1969; and Amembassy, Cape Town to State Department, Airgram, June 11, 1969, both in Folder Inco Tourism S 1/1/67, Box 1162, CFPF:E, RG 59, NACP; and Amembassy, Pretoria, to State Department, Airgram, January 22, 1970, Folder AV S 1/1/70, Box 661, Subject Numeric Files, 1970–73, Economic (hereafter SNF:E), RG 59, NACP.

97. A. Philip Randolph to Diggs, February 3, 1969, 1, Folder 17, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

98. Advertisement, New York Times, May 28, 1969, 32.

99. “Summary: Immediate Results of South African Airways Campaign,” July 22, 1969, Folder 14, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records. ACOA took credit for this, but the agency pointed to long-distance communication problems, and SAA claimed they did not like Graff's work. “S.A.A. Has Changed New York Agency,” Rand Daily Mail, August 18, 1969, 2.

100. Raymond Heard, “US Airline to Stop SA Adverts,” Rand Daily Mail, May 17, 1971, 2.

101. Rosenthal to Diggs, April 29, 1969, Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

102. Diggs to Paul Rand Dixon, Federal Trade Commission, May 1, 1969, Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

103. Federal Aviation Act, § 411.

104. Richard J. O'Melia to Diggs, October 2, 1969, 1, Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU; and Press release, October 7, 1969, Folder 17, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

105. Diggs to O'Melia, March 17, 1970, Folder 17, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

106. Jerry L. Reynolds to Diggs, July 31, 1969, Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

107. Diggs to Winton M. Blount, August 6, 1969, 2, Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

108. Ibid.

109. Ibid., 1.

110. Ibid.

111. “ONION For The Day,” Chicago Daily Defender, August 11, 1969, 5; “S. Africa Given U.S. Mail Deal,” Baltimore Afro-American, August 16, 1969, 1; and “Blount's Insulting Mail Deal,” Editorial, Baltimore Afro-American, August 23, 1969, 4.

112. Carl F. Salans, Deputy Legal Adviser, State Department, to David A. Nelson, General Counsel, USPS, August 21, 1969, Folder AV 6 S AFR 1/1/67, Box 553, CFPF:E, RG 59, NACP.

113. U.S. Business Involvement in Southern Africa: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Africa of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Part 1, 92nd Cong., 1st sess. (1971), 219.

114. Ibid. (J. F. Jones, Director, Traffic Management Division, Operations Department, USPS).

115. ACOA and Diggs did not try to revoke Pan Am's 1947 permit, although throughout this period they did monitor the status of Pan Am's request for additional service to South Africa.

116. Robert Lindsey, “Airline to Offer ‘General’ and ‘Mature’ Movies,” New York Times, February 19, 1970, 49.

117. “Pan Am Won't Hire Any Tan Stewardesses,” New York Amsterdam News, March 10, 1956, 36; Lillian Wiggins, “Diggs Raps Airlines on S. Africa as Banker's Wife Buys Racist Line,” Baltimore Afro-American, May 10, 1969, 1; and Diggs to Najeeb Halaby, Pan Am, September 23, 1971, Folder 17, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

118. Pan Am monthly operational bulletin, August 15, 1971, quoted in press release, February 8, 1972, Folder Feb. 7, Box 224, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU. See also G. Joseph Minetti to Diggs, November 22, 1971, Tab November 1971, Box 9, Outgoing Correspondence 1951–1979, Office of the Chairman, RG 197, NACP; Diggs to Congressional Liaison, memorandum, February 8, 1972, Folder Feb. 7, Box 224, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU; and Reuters, “Pan Am Race Policy Probed,” Washington Post, Times Herald, February 9, 1972, A8.

119. Francis L. Lennon, Senior Director, Flight Service Operations, Pan Am, to J. Driessen, Secretary for Transport, Pretoria, February 12, 1971, Folder South Africa 7, Box 357, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU; and Associated Press, “Pan Am to Use Blacks on South Africa Flights,” New York Times, February 11, 1972, 74.

120. ACOA, “Getting Information on Discriminatory Practices Connected with Tourist Travel to South Africa,” 1969, Folder 17; Action Ideas re South African Airways, n.d., Folder 14; Report on Activities in Our Campaign Against South African Airways, February 3, 1969, Folder 14; and ACOA, Draft, “Anatomy of a Campaign,” September 2, 1969, 5, Folder 20; all in Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

121. The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 acknowledged “the right of all private persons to travel and pursue their lawful activities without discrimination as to race or religion.” Pub. L. No. 87–195, 75 Stat. 424, § 102.

122. Project Inequality—South African Airways, n.d., Folder 14, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

123. Ibid.; see also South African Airways Quiz-IN, n.d., Folder 14, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

124. United States-South African Relations, part 1, 201 (statement of George Houser), 152 (testimony of Irving Brown, executive director, African-American Labor Center and United Nations Representative from the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, AFL-CIO); Cotter, William R. and Karis, Thomas, “We Have Nothing to Hide,” Africa Report 21:6 (1976): 37–45, at 37Google Scholar.

125. Amembassy, Pretoria, to State Department, Airgram, January 22, 1970, 2, Folder AV S 1/1/70, Box 661, SNF:E, RG 59, NACP.

126. 115 Cong. Rec. 22853 (August 7, 1969); see also Foreign Policy Implications of Racial Exclusion in Granting Visas: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 91st Cong., 2d sess. (1970) (discussing the denial of a visa to Arthur Ashe); and Morgan, Eric J., “Black and White at Center Court: Arthur Ashe and the Confrontation of Apartheid in South Africa,” Diplomatic History 36 (2012): 815–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

127. John G. Laylin, Covington and Burling, quoted in Joseph Goulden, “The Superlawyers: An Inside Look at Washington's Oldest and Biggest Law Firm: Covington and Burling,” Washingtonian Magazine, October 1971, 96.

128. Verified complaint, Lefkowitz v. South African Airways, New York State Division of Human Rights, December 4, 1969, 5, Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

129. South African Airways, Foreign Permit, 49 C.A.B. at 339.

130. Lefkowitz, quoted in News Release, December 8, 1969, Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU. SAA lawyers had themselves previously described SAA as “an instrumentality of the Government of South Africa” and “the name under which the Airways Department of the Administration operates commercially.” Brief of South African Airways to Examiner Hyman S. Goldberg, September 16, 1968, 2, 2 fn 1, Docket 20054, RG 197, NACP.

131. Verified complaint, Lefkowitz v. South African Airways, New York State Division of Human Rights, December 4, 1969, 5, Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU.

132. Determination and Order after Investigation, Lefkowitz v. South African Airways, Case No. Ia-CP-0446-69, New York State Division of Human Rights, January 21, 1970; and Press Release, New York State Division of Human Rights, December 16, 1969; both in Folder 2, Box 201, Diggs Papers, MSRC-HU; and “South African Line is Accused of Bias,” New York Times, December 8, 1969, 10.

133. State Department, Memorandum of Conversation, December 17, 1969, 2, Folder AV 6 S AFR 1/1/67, Box 553, CFPF:E, RG 59, NACP; and State Department, Memorandum of Conversation, February 12, 1970, 1, and South Africa, Aide Memoire, July 16, 1970, both in Folder AV S 1/1/70, Box 661, SNF:E, RG 59, NACP.

134. State Department, Memorandum of Conversation, December 17, 1969, 2, Folder AV 6 S AFR 1/1/67, Box 553, CFPF:E, RG 59, NACP.

135. “Score in Airways Battle,” New York Amsterdam News, June 6, 1970, 4; and “State Human Rights Socks It to S.A.,” New York Amsterdam News, July 18, 1970, 43.

136. SAA, Application to Reopen and Notice of Motion to Dismiss the Complaint, to Vacate the Notice of Hearing, and for Other Relief, Lefkowitz v. South African Airways, Case No. Ia-CP-0446-69, New York State Division of Human Rights, February 10, 1970, in Exhibits Accompanying Petitioner's Petition and Memorandum in Support Thereof, Folder 17, Box 94, Series I: Lawyers’ Committee for Civil Rights Under Law Southern Africa Project (hereafter Series I), Subseries I.3: Case Files, Gay McDougall Papers 1967–1999 (hereafter McDougall Papers), Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New York (hereafter CUL).

137. South African Airways v. New York State Division of Human Rights, 64 Misc. 2d 707, 710–11 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1970). Someone at the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law wrote in the margins of this case alongside this paragraph “dictum—gratuitous & erroneous”; p. 4, Folder 18, Box 94, Series I, Subseries I.3: Case Files, McDougall Papers, CUL.

138. South African Airways, 64 Misc. 2d at 712.

139. Whittemore, William C. III, “Recent Decisions,” Journal of International Law and Economics 6 (1971): 175–85Google Scholar; Chandler, James P., Note, Harvard International Law Journal 13 (1972): 132–51Google Scholar; and Lillich, Richard B., “The Role of Domestic Courts in Promoting International Human Rights Norms,” New York Law School Law Review 24 (1978): 153–77Google Scholar.

140. Browne to Robert J. Mangum, February 16, 1971, 2, Folder South Africa, Box 97, Records Relating to International Aviation Negotiation, Minetti Papers, RG 197, NACP. Statutory language barred domestic and foreign air carriers from “subject[ing] any particular person, port, locality, or description of traffic in air transportation to any unjust discrimination or any undue or unreasonable prejudice or disadvantage in any respect whatsoever.” Federal Aviation Act, §404(b).

141. Sugar Act Amendments of 1971: Hearings before the Senate Committee on Finance, part 2, 92nd Cong., 1st sess.; U.S. Business Involvement in Southern Africa, pts. 1 and 2; H.J. Res. 1139, 92nd Cong., 2nd sess. (1972); Diggs, Charles C. Jr., “Action Manifesto,” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 2 (1972): 52–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Conyers, John, “The United States’ Growing Support for Racism in South Africa,” The Black Scholar 6:4 (1974): 32–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Metz, “Congress, the Antiapartheid Movement, and Nixon,” 171–73, 179–80; Schraeder, United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa, 209–11; Nesbitt, Race for Sanctions; Gillette, Robert, “NASA: Caught between Congress and Apartheid,” Science 175 (1972): 1341–42, 1344CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Gillette, Robert, “NASA Inches Out of a Segregated Tracking Station,” Science 181 (1973): 331–33, 380CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Thomson, U.S. Foreign Policy Toward Apartheid South Africa, 65; Metz, “The Anti-Apartheid Movement and the Formulation of American Policy Toward South Africa,” 163–71; Copson, Raymond W., The Congressional Black Caucus and Foreign Policy (New York: Novinka Books, 2003)Google Scholar; Morgan, Eric J., “Our Own Interests: Nixon, South Africa, and Dissent at Home and Abroad,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 17 (2006): 475–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Miller, “Black Legislators and African-American Relations”; DuBose, The Untold Story of Charles Diggs; Massie, Loosing the Bonds; Kornegay, “Black America and U.S.-Southern Africa Relations”; and Culverson, Contesting Apartheid, 60–61.

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145. Petition for Leave to Intervene by Charles Coles Diggs, Yvonne Brathwaite Burke, Shirley Anita Chisholm, et al. (hereafter Joint Intervenors), February 16, 1973, 3, Docket 24944 vol. 1, Box 994, Selected Docket Files 1938-84, Docket Section, Office of the Secretary (hereafter Docket 24944 vol. 1), RG 197, NACP.

146. H.R. 4209, 119 Cong. Rec. 3953 (February 8, 1973); and “Congress Gets Bills To Check S. African Bias,” New York Amsterdam News, February 24, 1973, D10.

147. Memorandum, South African Airways Permit Amendment Application, December 15, 1972, Folder South Africa, Box 97, Records Relating to International Aviation Negotiation, Minetti Papers, RG 197, NACP.

148. Prehearing Conference Report, February 22, 1973, 3, Docket 24944, Folder 19, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records. Federal Aviation Act, § 404(b), § 411.

149. Diggs to C. Clyde Ferguson Jr., Deputy Assistant Secretary for African Affairs, State Department, February 8, 1973 and attached memorandum, n.d., Folder AV S 1/1/70, Box 661, SNF:E, RG 59, NACP.

150. Ferguson to Diggs, February 20, 1973, 2, Folder AV S 1/1/70, Box 661, SNF:E, RG 59, NACP. State Department surveys indicated no formal segregation on SAA international flights. Amembassy Pretoria to State Department, Airgram, January 22, 1970, Folder AV S 1/1/70, Box 661, SNF:E, RG 59, NACP.

151. Prehearing Conference Report, February 22, 1973, 3, Docket 24944, Folder 19, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

152. Brice Clagett, quoted in Jay Ross, “S. African Apartheid Hit at Airline Hearing,” Washington Post, Times Herald, February 22, 1973, A14.

153. Prehearing Conference Report, February 22, 1973, 4, Docket 24944, Folder 19, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records. Hearing examiners had been renamed “administrative law judges.”

154. Ibid., 10–12.

155. Jay Ross, “S. African Apartheid Hit at Airline Hearing,” Washington Post, Times Herald, February 22, 1973, A14.

156. Answer of Applicant to Joint Petition to Intervene, February 23, 1973, 1, Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

157. Ibid., 4.

158. Joint Intervenors’ Objections to Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 3, Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

159. Joint Intervenors' Objections to Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 11–14a; and Objections of the Bureau of Operating Rights to the Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 2–3; both in Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 defined foreign air transportation as transportation between “a place in the United States and any place outside thereof; whether such commerce moves wholly by aircraft or partly by aircraft and partly by other forms of transportation.” § 101(21)(c).

160. Objections of the Bureau of Operating Rights to the Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 4–5; and Request for Information, Feb. 27, 1973, both in Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

161. Joint Intervenors’ Objections to Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 15–17, Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

162. Objections of the Bureau of Operating Rights to the Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 4; and Joint Intervenors' Objections to Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 4, both in Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

163. Joint Intervenors' Objections to Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 7, Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

164. Ibid., 7–10.

165. Federal Aviation Act of 1958, § 102(c).

166. Joint Intervenors’ Objections to Prehearing Conference Report, March 2, 1973, 9, Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

167. Ibid., 5 fn. 3, drawing on Chandler, Note, 145.

168. Supplemental Prehearing Conference Report, March 8, 1973, Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

169. Hearing Transcript, April 9, 8–42 (testimony of Frans J. Swartz, Deputy Commercial Director), and SAA exhibit 10, both in Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP. According to one source, SAA had stopped segregating its domestic flights in anticipation of the permit application. Weissbrodt, David and Mahoney, Georgina, “International Legal Action Against Apartheid,” Law and Inequality 4 (1986): 485–508, at 506Google Scholar.

170. Hearing Transcript, April 9, 43–74 (testimony of Reginald Brett, North American office manager), and SAA exhibit 19, both in Docket 24944 vol. 1, RG 197, NACP.

171. Recommended Decision of Administrative Law Judge Ross I. Newmann, reprinted in South African Airways, Permit Amendment, 63 C.A.B. 377, 382 (1973).

172. South African Airways, Permit Amendment, 63 C.A.B. at 379.

173. Diggs v. CAB, 516 F.2d 1248 (D.C. Cir. 1975). See David A. Levitt, “Judicial Review of Foreign Route Orders Under the Federal Aviation Act,” Transportation Law Journal 12 (1980): 109–37.

174. Petition for Writ of Certorari, Diggs v. Civil Aeronautics Board, Docket No. 75–658 (November 3, 1975); cert. denied, 424 U.S. 910 (1976).

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177. South African Airways, Houston Service Exemption, 98 C.A.B. at 474.

178. Schraeder, United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa, 219–30; Thomson, U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Apartheid South Africa, 111–48.

179. U.S. Business Involvement in Southern Africa, part 1, 219.

180. ACOA, Draft, “Anatomy of a Campaign,” September 2, 1969, 3, Folder 20, Box 104, microfilm reel 9, ACOA Records.

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