Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T18:28:41.044Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Logic of Clientelism in Argentina: An Ethnographic Account

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 October 2022

Javier Auyero
Javier Auyero*
Affiliation:
State University of New York, Stony Brook
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Based on ethnographic fieldwork in a shantytown in the outskirts of Buenos Aires, this article studies the workings of Peronist “political clientelism” among the urban poor. It analyzes the web of relations that some slum-dwellers establish with local political brokers to obtain medicine, food, and solutions to other everyday concerns. The article also explores the main functions of the “problem-solving networks,” which are resource control and information hoarding, and pays particular attention to an underexplored dimension of the operation of clientelism: clients' own views on the network.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Research Review , Volume 35 , Issue 3 , 2000 , pp. 55 - 81
Copyright
Copyright © 2000 by the University of Texas Press

Footnotes

∗

This research was funded by a grant from the Joint Committee on Latin American and Caribbean Studies of the Social Science Research Council and the American Council of Learned Societies with funds provided by the Ford Foundation. I would like to thank Charles Tilly, Deborah Poole, Robert Gay, and Steve Levitsky for their critical comments on earlier versions. Drafts were presented at the Colloquium on Argentine Political Culture at the University of Illinois, Urbana, and the Seminario General at the Casa de Altos Estudios and the Fundación Banco Patricios in Argentina. I would like to thank Tulio Halperin, Jose Nun, and the participants in those forums for their insightful criticisms and encouragement. Parts of this essay were adapted from my forthcoming book, The Politics of Survival: Networks and Culture among the Argentine Urban Poor (to be published by DukeUniversity Press).

References

REFERENCES

ACUÑA, CARLOS 1995 “Politics and Economics in the Argentina of the Nineties (or, Why the Future No Longer Is What It Used to Be).” In Democracy, Markets, and Structural Reform in Latin America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico, edited by Acuña, Carlos, Gamarra, Eduardo, and Smith, William, 31–74. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction.Google Scholar
ACUÑA, CARLOS, ed. 1995 La nueva matriz política argentina. Buenos Aires: Nueva Vision.Google Scholar
AUYERO, JAVIER 1996 “La doble vida del clientelismo político.” Sociedad 8: 31–56.Google Scholar
AUYERO, JAVIER 1999a “Performing Evita: A Tale of Two Peronist Women.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 27, no. 4: 461–93.Google Scholar
AUYERO, JAVIER 1999b “This Is a Lot Like the Bronx, Isn't It?' Lived Experiences of Marginality in an Argentine Slum.” International journal of Urban and Regional Research 23, no. 1: 45–69.Google Scholar
AYATA-GÜNES, AYSE 1994 “Clientelism: Premodern, Modern, Postmodern.” In roniger and ayata-günes 1994, 19–28.Google Scholar
BECCARIA, LUIS, and LOPEZ, NESTOR 1996 “Notas sobre el comportamiento del mercado de trabajo urbano.” In BECCARIA, and LOPEZ, , EDS., 1996, 17–46.Google Scholar
BECCARIA, LUIS, and LOPEZ, NESTOR, EDS. 1996 Sin trabajo: Las características del desempleo y sus efectos en la sociedad argentina. Buenos Aires: Losada.Google Scholar
BIANCHI, SUSANA, and SANCHIS, NORMA 1988 El partido peronista femenino. Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina.Google Scholar
BITRAN, R., and SCHNEIDER, A. 1991 El gobierno conservador de Manuel A. Fresco en la provincia de Buenos Aires (1936–1940). Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina.Google Scholar
BODEMAN, M. 1988 “Relations of Production and Class Rule: The Hidden Basis of Patron-Clientage.” In Social Structures: A Network Approach, edited by Wellman, Barry and Berkowitz, Stephen D., 198–220. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
BORON, ATILIO, ET AL. 1995 Peronismo y menemismo. Buenos Aires: El Cielo por Asalto.Google Scholar
BOURDIEU, PIERRE 1977 Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press. 1990a The Logic of Practice. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. 1990b In Other Words. Essays toward a Reflexive Sociology. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
BOURDIEU, PIERRE, and WACQUANT, LOIC J. D. 1992 An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
BURGWALD, GERRIT 1996 Struggle of the Poor: Neighborhood Organization and Clientelist Practice in a Quito Squatter Settlement. Amsterdam: Centro de Estudios y Documentación Latinoamericana.Google Scholar
CARDOSO, RUTH 1992 “Popular Movements in the Context of Consolidation of Democracy.” In escobarGoogle Scholar
, AND ALVAREZ 1992, 291–302. CARLOS, MANUEL, and ANDERSON, BO 1981 “Political Brokerage and Network Politics in Mexico: The Case of a Dominance System.” In Networks, Exchange, and Coercion: The Elementary Theory and Its Applications, edited by Wilier, David and Anderson, Bo, 169–87. New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
CEB (CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS BONAERENSES) 1995 Informe de Coyuntura 51–1. Buenos Aires: CEB.Google Scholar
CETRANGOLO, OSCAR, and GOLBERT, LAURA 1995 Desempleo en Argentina: Magnitud del problema y políticas adoptadas. CECE Serie Estudios no. 8. Buenos Aires: Centro de Estudios para el Cambio Estructural.Google Scholar
CIEZA, DANIEL, and BEYREUTHER, VERONICA 1996 De la cultura del trabajo al estado de malestar: Hiper-desocupación, precarización y daños en el Conurbano Bonaerense. Cuadernos del IBAP no. 9. Buenos Aires: Instituto Bonaerense de Análisis y Proyectos.Google Scholar
CONNIFF, MICHAEL L. 1981 Urban Politics in Brazil: The Rise of Populism, 1925–1945. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
CORNELIUS, WAYNE A. 1973 “Contemporary Mexico: A Structural Analysis of Urban Caciquismo.” In The Caciques: Oligarchical Politics and the System of Caciquismo in the Luso-Hispanic World, edited by Kern, Robert, 135–50. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
CORNELIUS, WAYNE A. 1977 “Leaders, Followers, and Official Patrons in Urban Mexico.” In SCHMIDT, GUASTi, LANDE, and SCOTT, 1977, 337–54.Google Scholar
DAVIS, J. 1973 “Forms and Norms: The Economy of Social Relations.” Man 8, no. 2: 159–76.Google Scholar
DE LA TORRE, CARLOS 1992 “The Ambiguous Meanings of Latin American Populisms.” Social Research 59, no. 2: 385–414.Google Scholar
DURKHEIM, EMILE 1984 The Division of Labor in Society. New York: Free Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ECKSTEIN, SUSAN 1990 “Urbanization Revisited: Inner-City Slum of Hope and Squatter Settlement of Despair.” World Development 18, no. 2: 165–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
EDIN, KATHRYN, and LEIN, LAURA 1997 Making Ends Meet: How Single Mothers Survive Welfare and Low-Wage Work. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
EISENSTADT, SAMUEL 1995 Power, Trust, and Meaning: Essays in Sociological Theory and Analysis. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
EISENSTADT, SAMUEL, and RONIGER, LUIS 1984 Patrons, Clients, and Friends: Interpersonal Relations and the Structure of Trust in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
ELSON, D. 1992 “From Survival Strategies to Transformation Strategies: Women's Needs and Structural Adjustment.” In Unequal Burden: Economic Crises, Persistent Poverty, and Women's Work, 45–65. Edited by Beneria, Lourdes and Feldman, Shelley. Boulder, Colo.: Westview.Google Scholar
EPH (ENCUESTA PERMANENTE DE HOGARES) 1996 Encuesta Permanente de Hogares. Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censo (INDEC).Google Scholar
ERICKSON, BONNIE 1996 “The Structure of Ignorance.” Keynote address at the International Sunbelt Social Network Conference, Charleston, S.C., 22 February.Google Scholar
ESCOBAR, ARTURO, and ALVAREZ, SONIA 1992 The Making of Social Movements in Latin America. Boulder, Colo.: Westview.Google Scholar
ESCOBAR, CRISTINA 1994 “Clientelism and Social Protest: Peasant Politics in Northern Colombia.” In RONIGER, and GÜNES-AYATA 1994, 65–85.Google Scholar
ESCOBAR, CRISTINA 1997 “Clientelism and Citizenship: The Limits of Democratic Reforms in Colombia.” Paper presented to the Latin American Studies Association, Guadalajara, Mexico, 17–19 April.Google Scholar
FERNANDEZ, ROBERTO, and GOULD, ROGER V. 1994 “A Dilemma of State Power: Brokerage and Influence in the National Health Policy Domain.” American Journal of Sociology 99, no. 6: 1455–91.Google Scholar
FOX, JONATHAN 1994 “The Difficult Transition from Clientelism to Citizenship.” World Politics 46, no. 2: 151–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FRIEDMAN, JOHN, and SALGUERO, MAURICIO 1988 “The Barrio Economy and Collective Self-Empowerment in Latin America: A Framework and Agenda for Research.” Power, Community, and the City 1: 3–37.Google Scholar
GAY, ROBERT 1990 “Community Organization and Clientelist Politics in Contemporary Brazil: A Case Study from Suburban Rio de Janeiro.” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 14, no. 4: 648–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GAY, ROBERT 1994 Popular Organization and Democracy in Rio de Janeiro: A Tale of Two Favelas. Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
GAY, ROBERT 1995 “Between Clientelism and Universalism: Reflections on Popular Politics in Brazil.” Manuscript.Google Scholar
GELLNER, ERNEST, and WATERBURY, JOHN, EDS. 1977 Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
GOLBERT, LAURA 1996 Viejos y nuevos problemas de las políticas asistenciales. CECE Serie Estudios no. 12. Buenos Aires: Centro de Estudios para el Cambio Estructural.Google Scholar
GOULD, ROGER, and FERNANDEZ, ROBERTO 1989 “Structures of Mediation: A Formal Approach to Brokerage in Transaction Networks.” Sociological Methodology 1990: 89–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GOULDNER, ALVIN 1977 “The Norm of Reciprocity: A Preliminary Statement.” In schmidt, guasti, lande, and scott 1977, 28–43. graham, carolGoogle Scholar
GOULDNER, ALVIN 1991 “The APRA Government and the Urban Poor: The PAIT Programme in Lima's Pueblos Jóvenes.” Journal of Latin American Studies 23, pt. 1: 91–130.Google Scholar
GRANOVETTER, MARK 1973 “The Strength of Weak Ties.” American Journal of Sociology, no. 78: 1360–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
GUASTI, LAURA 1977 “Peru: Clientelism and Internal Control.” In schmidt, guasti, lande, and scott 1977, 422–38.Google Scholar
GUNTHER, RICHARD, DIAMANDOUROS, P. NIKIFOROS, and PUHLE, HANS-JÜRGEN 1996 “O'Donnell's ‘Illusions': A Rejoinder.” Journal of Democracy 7, no. 4: 151–59.Google Scholar
GUTERBOCK, THOMAS 1987 Machine Politics in Transition: Party and Community in Chicago. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
HAGOPIAN, FRANCES 1992 “The Compromised Consolidation: The Political Class in the Brazilian Transition.” In MAINWARING, O'DONNELL, and VALENZUELA, 1992, 243–93.Google Scholar
HEREDIA, BEATRIZ 1996 “Política, familia y comunidad.” Paper presented to the Encuentro Internacional de Antropología at the Instituto de Desarrollo Económico y Social, Buenos Aires, November.Google Scholar
HINTZE, SUSANA 1989 Estrategias alimentarias de sobrevivencia: Un estudio de caso en el Gran Buenos Aires. Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina (CEAL).Google Scholar
HIRSCHMAN, ALBERT 1984 Getting Ahead Collectively: Grassroots Experiences in Latin America. New York: Pergamon.Google Scholar
HOSKIN, GARY 1997 “Democratization in Latin America.” LARR 32, no. 3: 209–23.Google Scholar
INDEC (INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE ESTADISTICAS Y CENSO) 1993a Censo 1991: Avellaneda–Lanús. Buenos Aires: INDEC. 1993b Censo Nacional de Población. Buenos Aires: INDEC.Google Scholar
KATZNELSON, IRA 1981 City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
KESSLER, GABRIEL 1996 “Algunas implicancias de la experiencia de la desocupación para el individuo y su familia.” In beccaria and lopez, eds., 1996, 111–60.Google Scholar
KNOKE, DAVID 1990 Political Networks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
KORNBLUM, WILLIAM 1974 Blue Collar Community. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
LEVISTKY, STEVE 1997 “Crisis, Party Adaptation, and Regime Stability in Argentina.” Paper presented to the Latin American Studies Association, Guadalajara, Mexico, 17–19 April.Google Scholar
LEVISTKY, STEVE 1998 “From Labor Politics to Machine Politics: The De-Unionization of Urban Peronism. 1983–97.” Paper presented to the Latin American Studies Association, Chicago, Ill., 24–26 September. n.d. “Populism Is Dead! Long Live the Populist Party! Labor-Based Party Adaptation and Survival in Argentina.” Manuscript.Google Scholar
LLOYD-SHERLOCK, PETER 1997 “Policy, Distribution, and Poverty in Argentina since Redemocratization.” Latin American Perspectives 24, no. 97: 22–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LO VUOLO, R., and BARBEITO, A. 1993 La nueva oscuridad de la política social: Del estado populista al neoconservador. Buenos Aires: Miño y Dávila.Google Scholar
LOMNITZ, LARISSA 1975 Cómo sobreviven los marginados. Mexico City: Siglo Veintiuno. 1988 “Informal Exchange Networks in Formal Systems: A Theoretical Model.” American Anthropologist, no. 90: 42–55.Google Scholar
LOZANO, CLAUDIO, and FELETTI, ROBERTO 1996 “Convertibilidad y desempleo: Crisis ocupacional en la Argentina.” Aportes para el Estado y la Administración Gubernamental 3, no. 5: 155–88.Google Scholar
LUMI, SUSANA, GOLBERT, LAURA, and FANFANI, EMILIO TENTI 1992 La mano izquierda del estado. Buenos Aires: Miño y Dávila.Google Scholar
MAINWARING, SCOTT, O'DONNELL, GUILLERMO, and SAMUEL VALENZUELA, J., EDS. 1992 Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame.Google Scholar
MARSHALL, ADRIANA 1997 “Protección del empleo en América Latina: Las reformas de los noventa y sus efectos en el mercado de trabajo.” In Empleo y globalización: La nueva cuestión social en la Argentina, edited by Villanueva, Ernesto, 427–58. Buenos Aires: Universidad Nacional de Quilmes.Google Scholar
MARTUCCELLI, DANILO, and SVAMPA, MARISTELLA 1997 La plaza vacia. Buenos Aires: Losada.Google Scholar
MENENDEZ CARRION, AMPARO 1986 La conquista del voto en el Ecuador: De Velasco a Roldós. Quito: Editora Nacional.Google Scholar
MERTON, ROBERT K. 1949 Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
MINGIONE, ENZO 1991 Fragmented Societies: A Sociology of Economic Life beyond the Market Paradigm. Cambridge: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
MINUJIN, ALBERTO 1992 Cuesta abajo. Buenos Aires: Losada.Google Scholar
MONZA, ALFREDO 1996 “Evolución reciente y perspectivas del mercado de trabajo en la Argentina.” Aportes para el Estado y la Administración Gubernamental, no. 3: 65–78.Google Scholar
MOUZELIS, NICOS 1985 “On the Concept of Populism: Populist and Clientelist Modes of Incorporation in Semiperipheral Polities.” Politics and Society 14, no. 3: 329–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MUNCK, RONALDO 1997 “A New Argentina? Democracy, Menem, and Labor.” Latin American Perspectives 24, no. 6: 173–79.Google Scholar
MURMIS, MIGUEL, and FELDMAN, SILVIO 1996 “De seguir así.” In beccaria and lopez, eds., 1996, 189–217.Google Scholar
NASON, MARSHALL R. 1973 “The Literary Evidence, Part III: The Caciques in Latin American Literature.” In The Caciques: Oligarchical Politics and the System of Caciquismo in the Luso-Hispanic World, edited by Kern, Robert, 110–28. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
NOVARO, MARCOS 1994 Piloto de tormentas: Crisis de representación y personalización de la política en Argentina (1989–1993). Buenos Aires: Letra Buena.Google Scholar
NUDLER, JULIO 1996 “Trabajo no hay y además es malo.” Página 12, 15 Dec., p. 5.Google Scholar
O'DONNELL, GUILLERMO 1992a Delegative Democracy? Kellogg Working Paper no. 172. Notre Dame, Ind.: Kellogg Institute for International Studies, University of Notre Dame. 1992b “Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes.” In MAINWARING, O'DONNELL, and VALENZUELA, 1992, 17–56.Google Scholar
O'DONNELL, GUILLERMO 1996a “Illusions about Consolidation.” Journal of Democracy 7, no. 2: 34–51.Google Scholar
O'DONNELL, GUILLERMO 1996b “Illusions and Conceptual Raws.” Journal of Democracy 7, no. 4: 160–68.Google Scholar
PAIGE, KAREN, and PAIGE, JEFFERY M. 1981 The Politics of Reproductive Ritual. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
PALERMO, VICENTE, and NOVARO, MARCOS 1996 Política y poder en el gobierno de Menem. Buenos Aires: Norma.Google Scholar
POWELL, JOHN DUNCAN 1977 “Peasant Society and Clientelist Politics.” In schmidt, guasti, lande, and scott 1977, 147–61.Google Scholar
PREVOT SCHAPIRA, M. 1996 “Las políticas de lucha contra la pobreza en la periferia de Buenos Aires, 1984–1994.” Revista Mexicana de Sociología 59, no. 2: 73–94.Google Scholar
PUTNAM, ROBERT 1993 Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
PUTNAM, ROBERT 1995 “Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital.” Journal of Democracy 6, no. 1: 65–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ROCK, DAVID 1972 “Machine Politics in Buenos Aires and the Argentine Radical Party, 1912–1930.” Journal of Latin American Studies 4, pt. 2: 233–56.Google Scholar
ROCK, DAVID 1975 Politics in Argentina: The Rise and Fall of Radicalism, 1890–1930. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RONIGER, LUIS 1990 Hierarchy and Trust in Modern Mexico and Brazil. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
RONIGER, LUIS, and GÜNES-AYATA, AYSE, EDS. 1994 Democracy, Clientelism, and Civil Society. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
RUBINICH, LUCAS 1991 Apuntes sobre nociones de derechos en sectores populares urbanos. Documentos CEDES. Buenos Aires: Centro de Estudios de Estado y Sociedad.Google Scholar
SAHLINS, MARSHALL D. 1977 “Poor Man, Rich Man, Big Man, Chief: Political Types in Melanesia and Polynesia.” In SCHMIDT, GUASTI, LANDE, and SCOTT, 1977, 220–31.Google Scholar
SCHEPER-HUGHES, NANCY 1992 Death without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SCHMIDT, STEFFEN, GUASTI, LAURA, LANDE, CARL, and SCOTT, JAMES, EDS. 1977 Friends, Followers, and Factions: A Reader in Political Clientelism. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
SCOTT, JAMES 1990 Domination and the Arts of Resistance. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. 1977 “Political Clientelism: A Bibliographical Essay.” In SCHMIDT, GUASTI, LANDE, and SCOTT, 1977, 483–507.Google Scholar
SCOTT, JAMES, and KERKVLIET, BENEDICT J. 1977 “How Traditional Rural Patrons Lose Legitimacy: A Theory with Special Reference to Southeast Asia.” In schmidt, guasti, lande, and scott 1977, 439–58.Google Scholar
SHEFNER, JON 1997 “From the Counter-Elites to the Streets: Civil Society Challenges Clientelism in Guadalajara.” Paper presented to the Latin American Studies Association, Guadalajara, Mexico, 17–19 April.Google Scholar
SIDICARO, RICARDO, and MAYER, JORGE 1995 Política y sociedad en los años del menemismo. Buenos Aires: Universidad de Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
SILVERMAN, SYDEL 1977 “Patronage and Community-Nation Relationships in Central Italy.” In schmidt, GUASTI, LANDE, and SCOTT, 1977, 293–304.Google Scholar
SMITH, WILLIAM 1992 “Hyperinflation, Macroeconomic Instability, and Neoliberal Restructuring in Democratic Argentina.” In The New Argentine Democracy, edited by Epstein, E., 5–40. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
STACK, CAROL 1974 All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
STEIN, STEVE 1980 Populism in Peru: The Emergence of the Masses and the Politics of Social Control. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
TELLIS-NOVAK, V. 1983 “Power and Solidarity: Clientage in Domestic Service.” Current Anthropology 24, no. 1: 67–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
TILLY, CHARLES 1994 Democracy Is a Lake. Working Paper, no. 185. New York: Center for Studies of Social Change, New School for Social Research.Google Scholar
UEHARA, EDWINA 1990 “Dual Exchange Theory, Social Networks, and Informal Social Support.” American Journal of Sociology 96, no. 3: 521–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VELEZ-IBAÑEZ, CARLOS 1983 Rituals of Marginality: Politics, Process, and Culture Change in Urban Central Mexico, 1969–1974. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
WACQUANT, LOIC J. D. 1996a “The Rise of Advanced Marginality: Notes on Its Nature and Implication.” Acta Sociologica: Journal of the Scandinavian Sociological Association 39, no. 2: 121–39.Google Scholar
WACQUANT, LOIC J. D. 1996b “Dynamics of Relegation in Advanced Societies.” Paper presented to the International Conference on Globalization and the New Social Inequality, Utrecht, the Netherlands, 16 November.Google Scholar
WALTER, RICHARD 1985 The Province of Buenos Aires and Argentine Politics, 1912–1943. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
WEBER, MAX 1968 Economy and Society. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
WEINGROD, ALEX 1977 “Patrons, Patronage, and Political Parties.” In schmidt, guasti, lande, and Scott 1977, 323–37.Google Scholar
WHYTE, WILLIAM FOOTE 1943 Street-Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
WOLF, ERIC 1977 “Kinship, Friendship, and Patron-Client Relations in Complex Societies.” In SCHMIDT, GUASTI, LANDE, and SCOTT, 1977, 167–77.Google Scholar