Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T23:26:54.497Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Selective Faunal Provisioning in the Southern Highlands of Formative Ecuador

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Peter W. Stahl
Peter W. Stahl*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Binghamton University,Binghamton, NY 13902-6000
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Analysis of a large animal bone assemblage from the Formative archaeological site of Challuabamba in Ecuador’s southern highlands provides additional evidence for the existence of local and extra-local trade connections during the second millennium B.C. Previous archaeological research has established that Formative occupants of this highland region accessed various maritime and terrestrial routes for the long-distance exchange of exotic goods with different highland and lowland areas throughout the Andes. The Formative zooarchaeological record at Challuabamba clearly implicates the provisioning of select high yield body portions of deer and the importation of exotic taxa, or parts thereof most likely from lowland sources directly to the west. Taphonomic analyses and zooarchaeological identification of the Challuabamba assemblage offer additional corroborating evidence for the early operation of prehispanic trade systems in the Northern Andes.

Recientes análisis zooarqueológicos de muestras procedentes del sitio Challuabamba, ubicado en las tierras altas del sur de Ecuador, han permitido identificar evidencias adicionales sobre la existencia de un sistema de intercambio local y a larga distancia entre grupos Formativos durante el segundo milenio A.C. Investigaciones previas ya habían establecido la presencia de una red de intercambio entre grupos de las sierras y las tierras bajas durante el Período Formativo, utilizando rutas terrestres y marítimas para el comercio de bienes exóticos a larga distancia a lo largo de los Andes. La colección de restos óseos de animales recuperada del sitio formativo de Challuabamba indica que las partes de esqueletos de venado preservadas incluyen aquellas que contenían las mejores porciones de carne. Asimismo, muestra la presencia de animales foráneos, particularmente especimenes que quizás provenían de las tierras bajas del oeste de los Andes. Los análisis tafonómicos y las identificaciones zooarqueológicas de Challuabamba ofrecen una evidencia adicional que corrobora otros estudios que indican la presencia de un sistema temprano de trueque y/o intercambio prehispánico en los Andes septentrionales.

Type
Reports
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 16 , Issue 3 , September 2005 , pp. 313 - 328
Copyright
Copyright © 2005 by the Society for American Archaeology.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Albuja, Luís 1991 Lista de vertebrados del Ecuador: Mamíferos. Revista Politécnia 16:163–203.Google Scholar
Anawalt, Patricia Rieff 1992 Ancient Cultural Contacts Between Ecuador, West Mexico and the American Southwest: Clothing Similarities. Latin American Antiquity 3:114–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arellano, A. Jorge 1994 Loma Pucara, a Formative Site in Cebadas Valley, Ecuador. Research and Exploration 10:118–120.Google Scholar
Arellano, A. Jorge 2000 Primeras evidencias del Formativo Tardío en la Sierra Central del Ecuador. In Formativo Sudamericano, Una Revaluatión, edited by P. Ledergerber-Crespo, pp. 160–175. Abya-Yala, Quito. Google Scholar
Bartram, Laurence E. Jr., and Marean, Curtis W. 1999 Explaining the “Klasies Pattern”: Kua Ethnoarchaeology, the Die Kelders Middle Stone Age Archaeofauna, Long Bone Fragmentation and Carnivore Ravaging. Journal of Archaeological Science 26:9–29.Google Scholar
Bennett, Wendell C. 1946 Excavations in the Cuenca Region, Ecuador. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 35, New Haven, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Bermann, Marc 1994 Lukumarta: Household Archaeology in Prehispanic Bolivia. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Blandín Landívar, Carlos 1977 El clima ysus coracferísticas en el Ecuador. XI Asamblea General y Reuniones Panamericanas de Consulta Conexas, Quito.Google Scholar
Blower, David 2000 The Many Facets oiMullu: More than just a Spondylus Shell. Andean Past 6:209–228.Google Scholar
Braun, Robert 1982 The Formative as Seen from the Southern Ecuadorian Highlands. In Primer simposio de correlaciones antropólogicas Andino-Mesoamericano, edited by Jorge G. Marcos and Presley Norton, pp. 41–119. Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador. Google Scholar
Bray, Tamara L. 1995a The Panzaleo Puzzle: Non-local Pottery in Northern Highland Ecuador. Journal of Field Archaeology 22:137–148.Google Scholar
Bray, Tamara L. 1995b Pimampiro y puertos de comercio: Investigaciones arqueológicas recientes en la Sierra Norte del Ecuador. In Perspectivas regionales en la arqueología del suroccidente de Colombia y norte de Colombia, edited by Cristóbal Gnecco, pp. 30–47. Editorial Universidad del Cauca, Popayán, Colombia. Google Scholar
Bray, Tamara L. 1998 Monos, monstruos, y mitos: Conexiones ideológicas entre la Sierra Septentrional y el Oriente del Ecuador. In Intercambio y Comercio entre Sierra, Selva, y Costa, edited by Felipe Cárdenas-Arroyo and Tamara L. Bray, pp. 135–154. Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá. Google Scholar
Bruhns, Karen O. 1989 Intercambio entre la costa y la cierra en el Formativo Tardío: Nuevas evidencias del Azuay. In Relaciones Inter-culturales en el Area Ecuatorial del Pacífico Durante la Epoca Precolombina, edited by J.F. Bouchard and M Guinea, pp. 57–74.BAR International Series 503, Oxford. 1994 Ancient South America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Bruhns, Karen O. 2003 Social and Cultural Development in the Ecuadorian Highlands and Eastern Lowlands During the Formative. In Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J.S. Raymond and Richard L. Burger, pp. 125–174. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Bruhns, Karen O., Burton, James H., and Miller, George R. 1990 Excavations at Pirincay in the Paute Valley of Southern Ecuador, 1985–1988. Antiquity 64:221–233.Google Scholar
Bruhns, Karen O., Burton, James H., and Rostocker, Arthur 1994 La cerámica ‘incisa en franjas rojas’: Evidencia de intercambio entre la sierra y el oriente en el Formativo Tardío del Ecuador. In Tecnología y Organización de la Producción Cerámica Prehispánica en los Andes, pp. 53–66. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima.Google Scholar
Burgess, Warren E. 1989 An Atlas of Freshwater and Marine Catfishes. A Preliminary Survey of the Siluriformes. T.F.H. Publications, Neptune City, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Caillavet, Chantal 1998 Conchas marinas y rutas de intercambio prehispánico en los Andes Septentrionales. In Intercambio y comercio entre sierra, selva, y costa, edited by Felipe Cárdenas-Arroyo and Tamara L. Bray, pp. 67–85. Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá. Google Scholar
Cañadas Cruz, L. 1983 El mapa bioclimáticoy ecológico del Ecuador. Banco Central del Ecuador, Quito.Google Scholar
Cardale, Marianne, and Herrera, Leonor 1995 Caminos y comerciantes en el suroccidente de Colombia entre 2500 y 1500 A.P. In Perspectivas regionales en la arqueología del suroccidente de Colombia y norte de Colombia, edited by Cristóbal Gnecco, pp. 195–222. Editorial Universidad del Cauca, Popayán, Colombia. Google Scholar
Cárdenas-Arroyo, Felipe, and Bray, Tamara L. (editors) 1998 Intercambio y comercio entre costa, Andes y selva: Arqueología y etnohistoria de Suramerica. Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de los Andes, Bogatá.Google Scholar
Carmichael, Elizabeth 1981 Datación mediante el Carbono 14 de muestras de carbón de sitios de cerámica fina provenientes del Altiplano del Ecuador. Revista de Antropología 7.Google Scholar
Collier, Donald, and Murra, John V. 1943 Survey and Excavations in Southern Ecuador. Field Museum of Natural History Anthropological Series 35, Publication 528. Chicago.Google Scholar
Cordy-Collins, Alana 1994 An Unshaggy Dog Story. Natural History 103(2):34–41.Google Scholar
Currie, Elizabeth J. 1995 Archaeology, Ethnohistory and Exchange along the Coast of Ecuador. Antiquity 69:511–526.Google Scholar
Darwent, Christyann M., and Lee Lyman, R. 2002 Detecting the Postburial Fragmentation of Carpals, Tarsals, and Phalanges. In Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory, and Archaeological Perspectives, edited by W. D. Haglund and M. H. Sorg, pp. 355–377. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. Google Scholar
Edwards, Clinton R. 1960 Sailing Rafts of Sechura: History and Problems of Origin. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 16:368–391.Google Scholar
Edwards, Clinton R. 1969 New World Perspectives on Pre-European Voyaging in the Pacific. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Center of Latin American Studies Reprint 6, Milwaukee.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, John F., and Redford, Kent H. 1999 Mammals of the Neotropics. vol. 3. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Espinoza Soriano, Waldemar 1987 Artesanos, transacciones, monedas yformas depago en el mundo Andino, sighs XVy XVI. 2 Vols. Banco Central de Reserva del Perú, Lima.Google Scholar
Estrada, Emilio 1954 Ensayo Preliminar Sobre Arqueología del Milagro. Publicaciones del Archivo Histórico del Guayas, Guayaquil, Ecuador.Google Scholar
Estrada, Emilio 1959 Los Huancavilcas: Ultimas civilaciones pre-históricas de la costa de Guayas. Museo Victor Emilio Estrada, Guayaquil, Ecuador.Google Scholar
Estrada, Jenny 1990 La balsa en la historia de la navegacíon ecuatoriana. Instituto de Historia Maritima, Guayaquil, Ecuador.Google Scholar
Gomis, Dominique 2000 La cerámica Formativa Tardía de la sierra sustral del Ecuador. In Formativo Sudamericano, Una Revaluación, edited by P. Ledergerber-Crespo, pp. 139–153. Abya-Yala, Quito. Google Scholar
Gorzula, Stefan, and Seijas, Andres Eloy 1989 The Common Caiman. In Crocodiles: Their Ecology, Management and Conservation, pp. 44–61. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Grieder, Terence, Farmer, James D., Carrillo, Antonio, and Jones, Bradford M. 2002 Art and Prestige Among Noble Houses of the Equatorial Andes. In Andean Archaeology II, Landscape, and Society, edited by H. Silverman and W. H. Isbell, pp. 157–177. Kluwer Academic, New York. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guffroy, J. 1989 Las tradiciones culturales de Catamayo en el ámbito Formativo Andino. In Antropología del Ecuador: Memorias del Primer Simposio Europeo sobre Antropología del Ecuador, edited by S. Moreno Yanez, pp. 113–133. Abya Yala, Quito. Google Scholar
Guffroy, J., Almeida, N., LeCoq, P., Caillavet, C., Duverneuil, F., Emperaire, L., and Arnaud, B. 1987 Loja Prehispanique. RecherchesArcheologiques dans les Andes Meridionales de L'Equateur. Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations Synthèse No. 27. Institut FranÇais D'Études Andines, Paris.Google Scholar
Herring, Susan W. 1985 Morphological Correlates of Masticatory Patterns in Peccaries and Pigs. Journal of Mammalogy 66:603–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hocquenghem, Anne-Marie 1993 Rutas de entrada del Mullu en el extremo norte del Perú. Bulletin de L'Institut FranÇaise d'Etudes Andines 22:701–719.Google Scholar
Hocquenghem, Anne-Marie 1999 En torno al Mullu, manjarpredilecto de los poderosos inmortales. In Spondylus: Ofrenda Sagrada y Símbolo de Paz, pp. 57–102. Fundación Telefónica del Perú, Arequipa.Google Scholar
Hocquenghem, Anne-Marie, and Ruíz, Manuel Peña 1994 La talla de material malacológico en Tumbes. Bulletin de L'Institut FranÇaise d'Etudes Andines 23:209–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anne-Marie, Hocquenghem., Idrovo, Jaime, Kaulicke, Peter and Gomis, Dominique 1993 Bases del intercambio entre las sociedades norperuanas y surecuatorianas: una zona de transición entre 1500 A.C. y 600 D.C. Bulletin de L'Institut Frangaise d'Etudes Andines 22:443–466.Google Scholar
Holm, Olaf 1953 El tatuaje entre los aborígenes prepizzarianos de la costa Ecuatoriana. Cuadernos de Historia y Arqueología 3(7–8):56–92.Google Scholar
Holm, Olaf 1966/67 Money Axes from Ecuador. Folk 8–9:53–67.Google Scholar
Hornborg, A. 1989 Stratification and Exchange in the Pre-Columbian Andes: A Review Article. Ethnos 3–4:217–218.Google Scholar
Hosier, Dorothy 1988 Ancient West Mexican Metallurgy: South and Central American Origins and West Mexican Transformations. American Anthropologist 90:832–855.Google Scholar
Hosier, Dorothy, Lechtman, Heather, and Holm, Olaf 1990 Axe-monies and Their Relatives. Dumbarton Oaks Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology No. 30. Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Hyslop, John 1984 The Inca Road System. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Idrovo, Jaime 2000 El Formativo en la sierra Ecuatoriana. In Formativo Sudamericano, una revaluación, edited by P. Ledergerber-Crespo, pp. 114–123. Abya-Yala, Quito. Google Scholar
Jijón, y Caamaño, Jacinto 1941/47 El Ecuador interandino y occidental antes de la conquista castellana. Editorial Ecuatoriana, Quito.Google Scholar
Kaulicke, Peter 1991 El Período Intermedio Temprano en el Alto Piura: Avances del Proyecto Arqueológico “Alto Piura” (1987–1990). Bulletin de L'Institut FranÇaise d'Etudes Andines 20:381–422.Google Scholar
Klein, Richard G. 1989 Why Does Skeletal Part Representation Differ Between Smaller and Larger Bovids at Klasies River Mouth and Other Archaeological Sites? Journal of Archae ological Science 16:363–381.Google Scholar
Lanning, Edward P. 1963 A Ceramic Sequence for the Piura and Chira Coast, North Peru. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 46(2). University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Lathrap, Donald W., Collier, Donald, and Chandra, Helen 1975 Ancient Ecuador. Culture, Clay and Creativity 3000–300 B. C. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.Google Scholar
Lippi, Ronald D. 1998 Encuentros precolombinos entre serranos y costeños en el país Yumbo (Pichincha Occidental, Ecuador). In Intercambio y comercio entre sierra, selva, y costa, edited by Felipe Cárdenas-Arroyo and Tamara L. Bray, pp. 115–134. Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá. Google Scholar
Lyman, R. Lee 1984 Bone Density and Differential Survivorship of Fossil Classes. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3:259–299.Google Scholar
Lyman, R. Lee 1992 Anatomical Considerations of Utility Curves in Zooarchaeology Journal of Archaeological Science 19:7–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyman, R. Lee 1994 Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Madrigal, T. Cregg, and Holt, Julie Zimmerman 2002 White-tailed Deer Meat and Marrow Return Rates and their Application to Eastern Woodland archaeology. American Antiquity 67:745–759.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marcos, Jorge G. 1986 De ida y vuelta a Acapulco con mercaderes de Mullu. In Arqueología de la costa Ecuatoriana, edited by J.G. Marcos, pp. 163–196. Biblioteca Ecuatoriana de Arqueología, Vol. 1, Quito. Google Scholar
Marcos, Jorge G. 1995 El mullo y el pututo. La articulación de la ideologia y el tráfico a larga distancia en la formatión del estado Huancavilca. In Primer Encuentro de Investigadores de la Costa Ecuatoriana en Europa, edited by A. Alvarez, S. Alvarez, C. Fauria, and J.G. Marcos, pp. 97–142. Abya-Yala, Quito. Google Scholar
Marcos, Jorge G., and Norton, Presley 1981 Interpretatión sobre la arqueología de la Isla de la Plata. Miscelánea Antropológica Ecuatoriana 1:136–154.Google Scholar
Marcos, Jorge G., and Norton, Presley 1984 From the Yungas of Chinchay Suyo to Cuzco: The Role of La Plata Island in Spondylus Trade. In Social and Economic Organization in the Prehispanic Andes, edited by David Browman, Richard Burger, and Mario Rivera, pp. 7–20. BAR International Series 194, Oxford. Google Scholar
Marean, Curtis W. 1991 Measuring Post-depositional Destruction of Bone in Archaeological Assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science 18: 677–694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marean, Curtis W. 1998 A Critique of the Evidence for Scavenging by Nean-dertals and Early Modern Humans: New Data from Kobeh Cave (Zagros Mountains, Iran) and Die Kelders Cave 1 Layer 10 (South Africa). Journal of Human Evolution 35:11–136.Google Scholar
Marean, Curtis W., and Frey, Carol J. 1997 Animal Bones from Cave Sites to Cities: Reverse Utility Curves as Methodological Artifacts. American Antiquity 62:698–711.Google Scholar
Marean, Curtis W., and Kim, Soo Yeun 1998 Mousterian Large-mammal Remains from Kobeh Cave. Current Anthropology 39 (supplement):S79–S113.Google Scholar
Marean, Curtis W., Spencer, Lillian M., Blumenschine, Robert J., and Capaldo, Salvatore D. 1992 Captive Hyaena Bone Choice and Destruction, the Schlepp Effect and Olduvai Archaeofaunas. Journal of Archaeological Science 19:101–121.Google Scholar
Masucci, Maria A. 1995 Marine Shell Bead Production and the Role of Domestic Craft Activities in the Economy of the Guangala Phase, Southwest Ecuador. Latin American Antiquity 6:70–84.Google Scholar
Meggers, Betty J. 1966 Ecuador. Praeger Publishers, New York.Google Scholar
Mester, Ann 1985 Un taller Manteño de concha madre perla del sitio Los Frailes, Manabí. Miscelánea Antropológica Ecuatoriana 5:101–111.Google Scholar
Molina, Misael, and Molinari, Jesús 1999 Taxonomy of Venezuelan White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus, Cervidae, Mammalia), Based on Cranial and Mandibular Traits. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77:632–645.Google Scholar
Murra, John V. 1946 The Historic Tribes of Ecuador. In The Andean Civilizations, edited by Julian H. Steward, pp. 785–821. In Handbook of South American Indians, Vol. 2, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 143, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Murra, John V. 1975 El tráfico del mullu en la costa del Pacífico. In Formaciones Económicas y Politicas del Mundo Andino, by J.V. Murra, pp. 275–313. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima. Google Scholar
Muse, Michael C. 1991 Products and Politics of a Milagro Entrepút: Peñón del Río, Guayas Basin, Ecuador. Research in Economic Anthropology 13:269–323.Google Scholar
Norton, Presley 1987 El señorío de salangone y la liga de mercaderes. Miscelánea Antropológica Ecuatoriana 6:131–143.Google Scholar
Norton, Presley, Lunnis, Richard, and Nayling, Nigel 1983 Excavaciones en Salango, Provincia de Manabí, Ecuador. Miscelánea Antropológica Ecuatoriana 3:9–80.Google Scholar
Paulsen, Allison C. 1974 The Thorny Oyster and the Voice of God: Spondylus and Strombus in Andean Prehistory. American Antiquity 39:597–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paulsen, Allison C. 1977 Patterns of Maritime Trade between South Coastal Ecuador and Western Mesoamerica, 1500 B.C.-A.D. 600. In The Sea in the Pre-Columbian World, edited by Elizabeth. P. Benson, pp. 141–160. Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Pavao, Barnet, and Stahl, Peter W. 1999 Structural Density Assays of Leporid Skeletal Elements with Implications for Taphonomic, Actualistic and Archaeological Research. Journal of Archaeological Science 26:53–66.Google Scholar
Pillsbury, Joanne 1996 The Thorny Oyster and the Origins of Empire: Implications of Recently Uncovered Spondylus Imagery from Chan Chan, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 7:313–340.Google Scholar
Porras, Pedro I. 1975 Fase Cosanga. Estudios científicos sobre el oriente Ecuatoriana. Centro de Publicaciones de la Pontífica Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito.Google Scholar
Porras, Pedro I. 1980 Arqueología del Ecuador. Gallocapitán, Quito.Google Scholar
Ramírez-Horton, Susan 1982 Retainers of the Lords or Merchants: A Case of Mistaken Identity? In El Hombre y su Ambiente en los Andes Centrales, edited by Luis Millones and Hiroyasu Tomoeda, pp. 123–136. Senri Ethnological Studies 10. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka. Google Scholar
Ravines, Rogger (editor) 1978 Tecnología Andina. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima.Google Scholar
Rehren, Thilo, and Temme, Mathilde 1992 Pre-Columbian Gold Processing at Putushio, South Ecuador: The Archaeometallurgical Evidence. In Archaeometry of Pre-Columbian Sites and Artifacts, edited by David Scott and Pieter Meyers, pp. 267–284. Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Richardson, James B., McConaughy, M. A., Heaps de Peña, A., and Décima Zamecnik, E. B. 1990 The Northern Frontier of the Kingdom of Chimor: the Piura, Chría, and Tumbez Valleys. In The Northern Dynasties: kingship and statecraft in Chimor, edited by Michael. E. Moseley and Alana Cordy-Collins, pp. 419–445. Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Rostoker, Arthur 1998 Recuerdos de la montaña mágica, revisitados. In Intercambio y Comercio entre Sierra, Selva, y Costa, edited by Felipe Cárdenas-Arroyo and Tamara L. Bray, pp. 154–162. Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá. Google Scholar
Rostworowski de Díez Canseco, María 1970 Mercaderes del Valle de Chincha en la epoca prehispánica. Revista Española de Antropología Americana 5:137–178.Google Scholar
Rostworowski de Díez Canseco, María 1975 Coastal Fishermen, Merchants, and Artisans in Prehispanic Peru. In The Sea in the Pre-Columbian World, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 167–188. Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Salomon, Frank 1986 Native Lords of Quito in the Age of the Incas. The Political Economy of North Andean Chiefdoms. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Sámano, Juan de 1985 [1525] La relatión Sámano. In Verdadera Relación de la Conquista del Perú, edited by Conceptión Bravo, pp. 175–184. Historia 16, Madrid. Google Scholar
Sandweiss, Daniel H. 1992 The Archaeology of Chincha Fishermen: Specialization and Status in Inka Peru. Bulletin of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History 29:1–162.Google Scholar
Schaedel, Richard P. 1990 El comercio en el antiguo Perú. In Historia, antropología y político: Homenaje a Angel Palerm I., edited by M. Suárez, pp. 330–372. Universidad Iberoamericana, Alianza Editorial Mexicana, México. Google Scholar
Shady, Ruth 1987 Tradición y cambio en las sociedades Formativas de Bagua. Revista Andina 5:457–487.Google Scholar
Shady, Ruth 1992 Sociedades Formativas del nororiente Peruano. In Prehistoria Sudamericana, edited by Betty J. Meggers, pp. 343–357. Taraxacum, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Shimada, Izumi 1991 Pachacamac Archaeology: Retrospect and Prospect. In Pachacamac, edited by Max Uhle, pp. XVI-LXVI. University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Shimada, Izumi 1999 Evolution of Andean Diversity: Regional Formations (500 B.C.E.–C.E. 600). In The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. III (1), edited by Frank Salomon and B. Schwartz, pp. 350–517. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Google Scholar
Shimada, Melody, and Shimada, Izumi 1985 Prehistoric Llama Breeding and Herding on the North Coast of Peru. American Antiquity 50:3–26.Google Scholar
Shipman, Pat, Bosler, Wendy, and Davis, Karen Lee 1981 Butchering of Giant Geladas at an Acheulian site. Current Anthropology 22:257–268.Google Scholar
Stahl, Peter W. 1988 Prehistoric Camelids in the Lowlands of Western Ecuador. Journal of Archaeological Science 15:355–365.Google Scholar
Stahl, Peter W. 1999 Structural Density of Domesticated South American Camelid Skeletal Elements and the Archaeological Investigation of Prehistoric Andean Ch'arki. Journal of Archaeological Science 26:1347–1368.Google Scholar
Stahl, Peter W. 2003a Pre-Columbian Andean Animal Domesticates at the Edge of Empire. World Archaeology 34:470–483.Google Scholar
Stahl, Peter W. 2003b Informe sobre la zooarqueología de Challuabamba, Provincia de Azuay, Ecuador. Unpublished manuscript on file, Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador, Cuenca, Ecuador.Google Scholar
Stahl, Peter W., and Stephen Athens, J. 2001 A High Elevation Zooarchaeological Assemblage from the Northern Andes of Ecuador. Journal of Field Archaeology 28:161–176.Google Scholar
Stahl, Peter W., and Norton, Presley 1987 Precolumbian Animal Domesticates from Salango, Ecuador. American Antiquity 52:382–391.Google Scholar
Szasdi Nagy, Adam 1982–83 Las rutas del comercio prehispánico de metales. Cuadernos Prehispánicos 10:5–132.Google Scholar
Temme, Mathilde 2000 El Formativo en Putushío - sierra sur del Ecuador. In Formativo Sudamericano, Una Revaluación, edited by P. Ledergerber-Crespo, pp. 124–138. Abya-Yala, Quito. Google Scholar
Thorbjarnarson, John B. 1989 Ecology of the American Crocodile, Crocodylus acutus. In Crocodiles: Their Ecology, Management and Conservation, pp. 228–258. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Topic, John R. 1990 Craft Production and the Kingdom of Chimor. In The Northern Dynasties: Kingship and Statecraft in Chimor, edited by Michael E. Moseley and Alana Cordy-Collins, pp. 145–176. Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Uhle, Max 1922 Sepulturas ricas de oro en la Provincia del Azuay. Boletín de la Academia Nacional de Historia 4:108–114.Google Scholar
Villa, Paola, and Mahieu, Eric 1991 Breakage Patterns of Human Long Bones. Journal of Human Evolution 21:27–48.Google Scholar
Villalba, Marcelo 1988 Cotocollao: Una aldea Formativo de Valle de Quito. Serie Monográfica 2. Museos del Banco Central, Quito.Google Scholar
Villamarín, Juan, and Villamarín, Judith 1999 Chiefdoms: The Prevalence and Persistence of “Señoríos Naturales” 1400 to European Conquest. In The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. III (1), edited by Frank Salomon and B. Schwartz, pp. 577–667. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Google Scholar
West, Robert 1961 Aboriginal Sea Navigation between Middle and South America. American Anthropologist 63:133–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeidler, James A. 1991 Maritime Exchange in the Early Formative Period of Coastal Ecuador: Geopolitical Origins of Uneven Development. Research in Economic Anthropology 13:247–268.Google Scholar
Zeidler, James A. 2003 Appendix A: Formative Period Chronology for the Coast and Western Lowlands of Ecuador. In Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J. S. Raymond and Richard L. Burger, pp. 487–527. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Zevallos Menéndez, Carlos 1987 La gran navegación prehispánica en el Ecuador. Universidad Estatal de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador.Google Scholar