Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T02:48:17.480Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mobile Communities and Pastoralist Landscapes During the Formative Period in the Central Altiplano of Bolivia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

José M. Capriles
José M. Capriles*
Affiliation:
Instituto de Alta Investigatión, Universidad de Tarapacá, Antofagasta 1520, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The domestication of llamas and alpacas was fundamental for the cultural and economic development of Andean societies, but the origins of camelid pastoralism as a distinct mode of socioeconomic organization remain little understood. Whereas most archaeological interpretations of prehispanic highland societies emphasize the transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture as a process marked by the establishment of agricultural sedentary villages, other subsistence and mobility strategies have been for the most part overlooked. A case in point is the Wankarani cultural complex from the Central Altiplano of Bolivia, which has been interpreted as an example of an early village-based sedentary society. Here, I argue that a model of mobile pastoralism based on ethnoarchaeological research better explains the Central Altiplano's Formative period archaeological record. Recently collected data support this proposition. Settlement patterns consisted of multiple dispersed camps attached to residential bases occupied recurrently. Horizontal excavations from a residential base revealed structures and features analogous to pastoralist landscapes documented around the world. Faunal identification confirmed the preponderance of domesticated camelids. Based on this evidence, I argue that we need better explanatory frameworks for approaching the origins, organization, and variability associated with early food producing societies such as mobile camelid pastoralists.

Resumen

Resumen

La domesticatión de llamas y alpacas fue fundamental para el desarrollo cultural y económico de las sociedades andinas. Sin embargo, el origen del pastoreo de camélidos como un distintivo modo de organizatión socioeconómica permanece poco entendido. Considerando que la mayoría de las interpretaciones arqueológicas acerca de las sociedades prehispánicas del altiplano hacen hincapié en que la transición de la caza y recolección hacia la agricultura fue un proceso marcado por el establecimiento de aldeas agrícolas sedentarias, la importancia de otras estrategias de subsistencia y movilidad ha sido, en su mayor parte, desestimada. Como ejemplo está el complejo cultural Wankarani del Periodo Formativo del altiplano central de Bolivia, que ha sido previamente caracterizado como un ejemplo de sociedad temprana basada en aldeas. En contraste, aquí se propone que un modelo de pastoreo móvil basado en investigatión etnoarqueológica y etnográfica explica mejor el registro arqueológico del Periodo Formativo en altiplano central. Datos recientemente recolectados de prospección, excavatión y análisis de fauna apoyan esta proposition. Los patrones de asentamiento consistieron de múltiples campamentos dispersos conectados a bases residenciales ocupadas recurrentemente. Excavaciones horizontales de una base residential revelaron la existencia de superposiciones de rasgos y estructuras andlogas a otras halladas en paisajes pastoriles documentados alrededor del mundo. La identificatión de fauna confirmó la preponderancia de camélidos domesticados como la base diétetica, pero también el consumo generalizado de recursos silvestres, probablemente procurados durante paseos de pastoreo. En base a esta evidencia, se argumenta que se necesitan mejores marcos explicativos asicomo adecuadas estrategias metodológicas para abordar los origenes, la organización y la variabilidad asociada con las sociedades tempranas productoras de alimentos a escala de subsistencia tales como los pastores móviles de camélidos en los Andes.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 25 , Issue 1 , March 2014 , pp. 3 - 26
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Aeronautical Society 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abdi, Kamyar 2003 The Early Development of Pastoralism in the Central Zagros Mountains. Journal of World Prehistory 17(4):395–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abercrombie, Thomas A. 1998 Pathways of Memory and Power: Ethnography and History among Andean People. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Albarracin-Jordan, Juan 2005 Empresa minera Inti Raymi, Proyecto Kori Chaca: estudio de evaluación de impacto arqueológico (EEIAR). Final report submitted to the National Unit of Archaeology of Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Albarracin-Jordan, Juan 2007 La formación del estado prehispánico en los Andes: origen y desarrollo de la sociedad segmentaria indígena. Fundación Bartolomé de las Casas, La Paz. Copies available from Bolivian Viceministerio de Interculturalidad.Google Scholar
Aldenderfer, Mark S. 2001 Andean Pastoral Origins and Evolution: The Role of Ethnoarchaeology. In Ethnoarchaeology of South America: Contributions to Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by Lawrence A. Kuznar, pp. 19–30. Ethnoarchaeological Series 4, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Aldenderfer, Mark S. 2002 Explaining Changes in Settlement Dynamics across Transformations of Modes of Production: From Hunting to Herding in the South-Central Andes. In Beyond Foraging and Collecting: Evolutionary Change in Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems, edited by Ben Fitzhugh and Junko Habu, pp. 387–412. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayala Rocabado, Patricia, Carrasco, Carlos, and Rodríguez, Mauricio Uribe 2008 Alfarería y líticos wankarani: caracterización y vínculos con el Norte Grande de Chile. In Arqueología de las tierras altas, valles interandinos y tierras bajas de Bolivia. Memorias del I Congreso de Arqueología de Bolivia .edited by Claudia Rivera Casanovas, pp. 99–114. Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Programa de Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2004 Trade and Social Power in the Southern Titicaca Basin Formative. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 14(1):91–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2005 New World Settlement Evidence for a Two-Stage Neolithic Demographic Transition. Current Anthropology 46(S):S109–S115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 2008 Global Patterns of Early Village Development. In The Neolithic Demographic Transition and Its Consequences, edited by Jean-Pierre Bocquet-Appel and Ofer Bar-Yosef, pp. 333–357. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S., and Fox, Jake R. 2010 Becoming Villagers: The Evolution of Early Village Societies. In Becoming Villagers: Comparing Early Village Societies, edited by Matthew S. Bandy and Jake R. Fox, pp. 1–16. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Beaule, Christine D. 2002 Late Intermediate Period Political Economy and Household Organization at Jachakala, Bolivia. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Bellwood, Peter, and Oxenham, Marc 2008 The Expansion of Farming Societies and the Role of the Neolithic Demographic Transition. In The Neolithic Demographic Transition and Its Consequences, edited by Jean-Pierre Bocquet-Appel and Ofer Bar-Yosef, pp. 13–34. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bermann, Marc, and Castillo, José Estévez 1993 Jachakala: A New Archaeological Complex of the Department of Oruro, Bolivia. Annals of the Carnegie Museum 62(4):311–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bermann, Marc, and Castillo, José Estévez 1995 Domestic Artifact Assemblages and Ritual Activities in the Bolivian Formative. Journal of Field Archaeology 22(4):389–398.Google Scholar
Bernbeck, Robert 2008 An Archaeology of Multisited Communities. In The Archaeology of Mobility: Old World and New World Nomadism, edited by Hans Barnard and Willeke Wendrich, pp. 43–77. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, Lewis R. 1980 Willow Smoke and Dogs’Tails: Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation Processes. American Antiquity 45(1):4–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre 2002 Paleoanthropological Traces of a Neolithic Demographic Transition. Current Anthropology 43(4):637–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonavia, Duccio 2008 South American Camelids. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Browman, David L. 1974 Pastoralism Nomadism in the Andes. Current Anthropology 15(2):188–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, David L. 1981 New Light on Andean Tiwanaku. American Scientist 69(4):408–419.Google Scholar
Browman, David L. 1987 Agro-Pastoral Risk Management in the Central Andes. Research in Economic Anthropology 8:171–200.Google Scholar
Browman, David L. 1997 Pastoral Risk Perception and Risk Definition for Andean Herders. Nomadic Peoples 1(1):22–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, David L. 2008 Pastoral Nomadism in the Central Andes: A Historic Retrospective Example. In The Archaeology of Mobility: Old World and New World Nomadism, edited by Hans Barnard and Willeke Wendrich, pp. 160–173. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruhns, Karen Olsen 1994 Ancient South America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Capriles, José M. 2008 Proyecto arqueológico en Iroco, Temporada 2007. Informe de avance de investigación. Report submitted to the Unidad Nacional de Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz. Copies available from Bolivian Viceministerio de Interculturalidad.Google Scholar
Capriles, José M. 2011 The Economic Organization of Early Camelid Pastoralism in the Andean Highlands of Bolivia. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis.Google Scholar
Capriles, José M., and Albarracin-Jordan, Juan 2013 The Earliest Human Occupations in Bolivia: A Review of the Archaeological Evidence. Quaternary International 301:46–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capriles, José M., Maldonado, Sergio Calla, and Albarracin-Jordan, Juan 2011 Tecnología lítica y estrategias de subsistencia durante los períodos Arcaico y Formativo en el altiplano central, Bolivia. Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena 43:455–468.Google Scholar
Caracotche, María Soledad 2001 The Invisibility of Time: An Ethnoarchaeological Study of the Temporary Sites of Herders of the Southern Puna. In Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America: Contributions to Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by Lawrence A. Kuznar, pp. 97–115. Ethnoarchaeological Series 4, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Cardozo, Armando 1981 Proyecciones de la ganadería de ovinos y camélidos en el Departamento de Oruro. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Chang, Claudia 2006 A Tribute to Susan Kent’s Ethnoarchaeological Studies on Mobility: Ethnoarchaeological and Archaeological Studies of Pastoral Nomads in Greece and Kazakhstan. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 16:27–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, Claudia, and Koster, Harold A. 1986 Beyond Bones: Toward an Archaeology of Pastoralism. In Advances in Archaeology Method and Theory, Vol. 9, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 97–148. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Childe, V. Gordon 1951 Social Evolution. Watts, London.Google Scholar
Castellón, Condarco, Carola, Edgar Huarachi Mamani, and Rosquellas, Mile Vargas 2002 Tras las huellas del tambo real de Paria. Programa de Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Cribb, Roger 1991 Nomads in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sempertegui, Cuenca, Ángela, Eva Garnica Bahoz, Canelas, Elizabeth López, and Cáceres, Isabel Marca 2005 Más allá de las pajas y espinas: biodiversidad en el municipio de Oruro (Comunidades Cochiraya – Iroco – Chuzekery). Centra de Ecología y Pueblos Andinos, Latinas Editores, Oruro.Google Scholar
Dedenbach-Salazar Sáenz, Sabine 1990 Inka pachaq llamanpa willaynin: uso y crianza de los camélidos en la época incaica. Estudio lingüístico y etnohistórico basado en las fuentes lexicográficas y texturales del primer siglo después de la conquista. Bonner Amerikanistische Studien, Seminar für Volkerkunde, Universität Bonn, Bonn.Google Scholar
Delfino, Daniel D. 2001 Of Pircas and the Limits of Society: Ethnoarchaeology in the Puna, Laguna Blanca, Catamarca, Argentina. In Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America: Contributions to Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by Lawrence A. Kuznar, pp. 116–137. Ethnoarchaeological Series 4, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Dillehay, Tom 2011 Direcciones futuras para la arqueología del pastoreo y el trífico caravanero sur andino. In En ruta: arqueología, historia y etnografía del tráfico sur andino, edited by Lautaro Núñez and Axel E. Nielsen, pp. 399–405. Encuentro Grupo Editor, Córdoba.Google Scholar
Dransart, Penelope Z. 2002 Earth, Water, Fleece, and Fabric: An Ethnography and Archaeology of Andean Camelid Herding. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Drennan, Robert D., Peterson, Christian E., and Fox, Jake R. 2010 Degrees and Kinds of Inequalities. In Pathways to Power: New Perspectives on the Emergence of Social Inequality, edited by T. Douglas Price and Gary M. Feinman, pp. 45–76. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyson-Hudson, Rada, and Dyson-Hudson, Neville 1980 Nomadic Pastoralism. Annual Review of Anthropology 9:15–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flannery, Kent V. 1972 The Origin of the Village as a Settlement Type in Mesoamerica and the Near East: A Comparative Study. In Man, Settlement and Urbanism, edited by Peter J. Ucko, Ruth Tringham and G. W. Dimbleby, pp. 23–53. Schenkman Publishing Company, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Flannery, Kent V. 2002 The Origins of the Village Revisited: From Nuclear to Extended Households. American Antiquity 67(3):417–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flannery, Kent V., Marcus, Joyce, and Reynolds, Robert G. 1989 The Flocks of the Wamani: A Study of Llama Herders on the Punas of Ayacucho, Peru. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
Flores Ochoa, Jorge 1979 Pastoralists of the Andes: The Alpaca Herders of Paratía. Translated by Ralph Bolton. Institute of the Study of Human Issues, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Fox, Jake R. 2007 Time and Process in an Early Village Settlement System on the Bolivian Southern Altiplano. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Fox, Jake R. 2010 A Persistent Early Village Settlement System on the Bolivian Southern Altiplano. In Becoming Villagers: Comparing Early Village Societies, edited by Matthew S. Bandy and Jake R. Fox, pp. 184–204. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frachetti, Michael D. 2008 Pastoralist Landscapes and Social Interaction in Bronze Age Eurasia. University of California Press, Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frachetti, Michael D. 2012 Multiregional Emergence of Mobile Pastoralism and Nonuniform Institutional Complexity across Eurasia. Current Anthropology 53(1):2–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franklin, William L. 1983 Contrasting Socioecologies of South America’s Wild Camelids: The Vicuña and the Guanaco. In Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior, edited by John F. Eisenberg and Devra G. Kleiman, pp. 573–629. Special Publication 7. American Society of Mammalogists, Shippensburg.Google Scholar
Gifford-Gonzales, Diane 2005 Pastoralism and Its Consequences. In African Archaeology: A Critical Introduction, edited by Anne B. Stahl, pp. 187–224. Blackwell, Maiden.Google Scholar
Graffam, Gray, Rivera, Mario, and Carevic, Alvaro 1996 Ancient Metallurgy in the Atacama: Evidence for Copper Smelting during Chile’s Early Ceramic Period. Latin American Antiquity 7(2): 101–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 1993 Agriculture and the Onset of Political Inequality before the lnka. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 2003 Community with the Ancestors: Ceremonies and Social Memory in the Middle Formative at Chiripa, Bolivia. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22(4):305–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 2008 The Formative Period in the Titicaca Basin. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell, pp. 545–561. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingold, Tim 1980 Hunters, Pastoralists and Ranches: Reindeer Economies and their Transformations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janusek, John Wayne 2004 Tiwanaku and Its Precursors: Recent Research and Emerging Perspectives. Journal of Archaeological Research 12(2):121–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janusek, John Wayne 2008 Ancient Tiwanaku. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kent, Jonathan 1982 The Domestication and Exploitation of the South American Camelids: Methods of Analysis and Their Application to Circum-Lacustrine Archaeological Sites in Bolivia and Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis.Google Scholar
Khazanov, Anatoly M. 1994 Nomads and the Outside World. Translated by Julia Crookenden. 2nd ed. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1993 Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Black-well, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 2003 The Social Production of Tiwanaku: Political Economy and Authority in a Native Andean State. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2. Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 449–472. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Kuznar, Lawrence A. 1990 Economic Models, Ethnoarchaeology, and Early Herding in the High Sierra of the South Central Andes. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston.Google Scholar
Kuznar, Lawrence A. 1995 Awatimarka: The Ethnoarchaeology of an Andean Herding Community. Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Fort Worth.Google Scholar
Kuznar, Lawrence A. 2001 Introduction to Andean Ethnoarchaeology. In Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America: Contributions to Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by Lawrence A. Kuznar, pp. 1–18. Ethnoarchaeological Series 4, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Lane, Kevin 2009 Engineered Highlands: The Social Organization of Water in the Ancient North-Central Andes (AD 1000–1480). World Archaeology 41(1):169–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lane, Kevin 2010 ¿Hacia dónde se dirigen los pastores? Un análisis del papel del agropastoralismo en la difusión de las lenguas en los Andes. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 14:181–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lecoq, Patrice 2001 El Período Formativo en Potosí: un estado de la cuestión. Textos Antropológicos 13(1–2):231–263.Google Scholar
López García, Maura K. 2003 Pastoreo andino (Llanquera – Carangas). Centra de Ecología y Pueblos Andinos, Latinas Editores, Oruro.Google Scholar
McAndrews, Timothy L. 1998 Early Village-Based Society and Long-Term Cultural Evolution in the South-Central Andean Altiplano. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
McAndrews, Timothy L. 2001 Organizatión y crecimiento de los sistemas de asentamiento temprano basados en aldeas en el altiplano Andino sur central. Textos Antropológicos 13(1–2): 135–145.Google Scholar
McAndrews, Timothy L. 2005a Wankarani Settlement Systems in Evolutionary Perspective: A Study in Early Village-Based Society and Long-Term Cultural Evolution in the South-Central Andean Altiplano. Los sistemas de asentamiento wankarani desde una perspectiva evolutiva: estudio de una sociedad temprana basada en la aldea y su evolución cultural en el sur del altiplano central andino. Translated by Ana María Boada Rivas. University of Pittsburgh Memoirs in Latin American Archaeology No. 15. Plural Editores, Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
McAndrews, Timothy L. 2005b Wankarani Settlement Dataset. University of Pittsburgh, Comparative Archaeology Database. Electronic resource, http://www.cadb.pitt.edu, accessed August 20, 2012.Google Scholar
McCormac, F. Gerry, Hogg, Alan G., Blackwell, Paul G., Buck, Caitlin E., Higham, Thomas F. G., and Reimer, Paula J. 2004 SHCal04 Southern Hemisphere Calibration, 0–11.0 cal kyr BP. Radiocarbon 46(3):1087–l092.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, Fiona, Grille, Katherine, and Arco, Lee 2011 Prehistoric Pastoralists and Social Responses to Climatic Risk in East Africa. In Sustainable Lifeways: Cultural Persistence in an Ever-Changing Environment, edited by Naomi F. Miller, Katherine M. Moore, and Kathlyn Ryan, pp. 39–74. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Meadow, Richard H. 1999 The Use of Size Index Scaling Techniques for Research on Archaeozoological Collections from the Middle East. In Historia Animalium ex Ossibus. Festschrift für Angela von den Driesch, edited by Cornelia Becker, Henriette Manhart, Joris Peters, and Jörg Schibler, pp. 285–300. Verlag Marie Leidorf, Rahden.Google Scholar
Medinacelli, Ximena 2003 La cultura de los llameros a través del Diccionario de Bertonio. Historia y Cultura 28–29:11–38.Google Scholar
Medinacelli, Ximena 2010 Sariri. Los llameros y la construcción de la sociedad colonial. Travaux de l’Institute Français d’Étutes Andines 286. Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, Plural Editores, La Paz.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mengoni-Goñalons, Guillermo L. 2008 Camelids in Ancient Andean Societies: A Review of the Zooarchaeological Evidence. Quaternary International 185(1):59–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mengoni-Goñalons, Guillermo L., and Yacobaccio, Hugo 2006 The Domestication of South American Camelids. A View from the South-Central Andes. In Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms, edited by Melinda A. Zeder, Daniel G. Bradley, Eve Emshwiller, and Bruce D. Smith, pp. 228–244. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Michel López, Marcos R. 2008 Patrones de asentamiento precolombino del Altiplano Boliviano: lugares centrales de la región de Quillacas, Departamento de Oruro, Bolivia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Uppsala University, Uppsala.Google Scholar
Moseley, Michael E. 2001 The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. 2nd ed. Thames & Hudson, New York.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Axel E. 2000 Andean Caravans: An Ethnoarchaeology. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Axel E. 2001 Ethnoarchaeological Perspectives on Caravan Trade in the South Central Andes. In Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America. Contributions to Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by Lawrence A. Kuznar, pp. 163–201. Ethnoarchaeological Series 4, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Axel E. 2009 Pastoralism and the Non-Pastoral World in the Late Pre-Columbian History of the Southern Andes (1000–1535). Nomadic Peoples 13(2): 17–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Núñez, Lautaro 2005 La naturaleza de la expansión aldeana durante el Formativo Tardío en la Cuenca de Atacama. Chungara, Revista Chilena de Antropología 37(2): 165–193.Google Scholar
Núñez, Lautaro, Cartajena, Isabel, Carrasco, Carlos, and de Souza, Patricio 2006 El templete de Tulán de la Puna de Atacama: emergencia de complejidad ritual durante el Formativo Temprano (norte de Chile). Latin American Antiquity 17(4):445–473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Núñez, Lautaro, and Dillehay, Tom D. 1995 Movilidad giratoria, armonía social y desarrollo en los Andes Meridionales: patrones de tráfico e interacción económica (ensayo). Universidad del Norte, Antofagasta.Google Scholar
Núñez, Lautaro, and Nielsen, Axel E. 2011 Caminante, sí hay camino: reflexiones sobre el tráfico sur andino. In En ruta: arqueología, historia y etnografía del tráfico sur andino, edited by Lautaro Núñez and Axel E. Nielsen, pp. 11–41. Encuentro Grupo Editor, Córdoba.Google Scholar
Núñez, Lautaro, and Santoro, Calogero M. 2011 El tránsito Arcaico-Formativo en la circumpuna y valles occidentales del centra sur Andino: hacia los caminos “Neolíticos”. Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena 43:487–530.Google Scholar
Orlove, Benjamin S. 1977 Alpacas, Sheep, and Men: The Wool Export Economy and Regional Society of Southern Peru. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Ponce Sanginés, Carlos 1970 Las culturas Wankarani y Chiripa y su relación con Tiwanaku. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Ponce Sanginés, Carlos 1972 Tiwanaku: espacio, tiempo y cultura. Ensayo de síntesis arqueológica. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Ponce Sanginés, Carlos 1980 Panorama de la arqueología boliviano. Editorial Juventud, La Paz.Google Scholar
Reitz, Elizabeth J., and Wing, Elizabeth S. 2008 Zooarchaeology. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rigsby, Catherine A., Piatt Bradbury, J., Baker, Paul A., Rollins, Stephanie M., and Warren, Michelle R. 2005 Late Quaternary Palaeolakes, Rivers, and Wetlands on the Bolivian Altiplano and Their Palaeoclimatic Implications. Journal of Quaternary Science 20(7–8):671–691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, Courtney E. 2001a Household and Community Organization of a Formative Period, Bolivian Settlement. Unpublished PhD. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Rose, Courtney E. 2001b Organización residential en una aldea del período Formativo Temprano: el sitio Wankarani de La Barca, Oruro. Textos Antropológicos 13(1–2): 147–165.Google Scholar
Salzman, Philip Carl 2004 Pastoralists: Equality, Hierarchy, and the State. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Sanders, William T., Parsons, Jeffrey R., and Stanley, Robert S. 1979 The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Schiffer, Michael B., Baron, Ana M., Cortes, Paulina P., and Sepulveda, Javier T. 1987 Deterioration of Adobe Structures: A Case Study from San Pedro de Atacama, Northern Chile. In Natural Formation Processes and the Archaeological Record, edited by David T. Nash and Michael D. Petraglia, pp. 10–29. BAR International Series 352. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 2003 Ancient Titicaca. The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Stuiver, Minze, and Reimer, Paula J. 1993 Extended 14C database and Revised CALIB 3.0 14C Calibration Program. Radiocarbon 35(1):215–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomka, Steve A. 1993 Site Abandonment Behavior among Transhumant Agro-Pastoralists: The Effect of Delayed Curation on Assemblage Composition. In Abandonment of Settlement and Regions: Ethnoarchaeological and Archaeological Approaches, edited by Catherine M. Cameron and Steve A. Tomka, pp. 11–24. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomka, Steve A. 1994 Quinua and Camelids on the Bolivian Altiplano: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach to Agro-Pastoral Subsistence Production with Emphasis on Agro-Pastoral Transhumance. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Tomka, Steve A. 2001 “Up and Down we Move…”: Factors Conditioning Agro-Pastoral Settlement Organization in Mountainous Settings. In Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America: Contributions to Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by Lawrence A. Kuznar, pp. 138–162. Ethnoarchaeological Series 4, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Tripcevich, Nicholas 2007 Quarries, Caravans, and Routes to Complexity: Prehispanic Obsidian in the South-Central Andes. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Vining, Benjamin R. 2011 Ruralism, Land Use History, and Holocene Climate in the Suches Highlands, Southern Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Boston University, Boston.Google Scholar
Wachtel, Nathan 2001 El regreso de los antepasados: los indios urus de Bolivia, del siglo XX al XVI. Ensayo de historia regresiva. Translated by Laura Ciezar. Fondo de Cultura Económica, México, D.F. Google Scholar
Walter, Heinz 1966 Beitäge zur Archäologie Boliviens. Die Grabungen des Museums für Völkerkunde Berlin im Jahre 1958. Archäologische Studien in Kordilleren Boliviens II. Verlag von Dietrich Reimer, Berlin.Google Scholar
Wasson, John 1967 Investigaciones preliminares en los “mounds” de Oruro. Khana 38:145–156.Google Scholar
Wendrich, Willeke, and Barnard, Hans 2008 The Archaeology of Mobility: Definitions and Research Approaches. In The Archaeology of Mobility: Old World and New World Nomadism, edited by Hans Barnard and Willeke Wendrich, pp. 1–21. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Wheeler, Jane C. 1995 Evolution and Present Situation of the South American Camelidae. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 54:271–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wylie, Alison 2002 Thinking from Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology. University of California Press, Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yacobaccio, Hugo D., and Madero, Cecilia M. 2001 Ethnoarchaeology of a Pastoral Settlement of the Andean Plateau: an Investigation of Archaeological Scale. In Ethnoarchaeology of Andean South America: Contributions to Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by Lawrence A. Kuznar, pp. 84–96. Ethnoarchaeological Series 4, International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar