Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T23:11:02.180Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Dietary Correlates to the Development of Nasca Social Complexity (A.D. 1–750)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Corina M. Kellner  and
Margaret J. Schoeninger
Corina M. Kellner
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Box 15200, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011 ([email protected])
Margaret J. Schoeninger
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, Ca. 92093-0532 ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examines the relationship between agricultural intensification and social complexity in past societies using a diachronic, contextualized population, the Nasca of the southern coast of Peru (A.D. 1–750). Using stable isotope analysis of human bone collagen, we tested social assumptions arising from the relationship between agricultural intensification and social complexity during the Nasca’s cultural fluorescence, including the construction of underground filtration galleries (puquios). Our data show that while agricultural intensification may have spurred social complexity in the Nasca region, it engendered few significant differences in access to foodstuffs. High status individuals in Nasca society had access to more meat than low status individuals, especially during time periods characterized by more social conflict, increasing trade routes, and agricultural intensification. Meat consumption may have been an important marker of status identity among the Nasca. Nasca elites, however, did not control access to agricultural products such as maize as effectively as they did meat. These dietary data support the contention that an indigenous process of innovation and intensification was the major catalyst to later social complexity in the Nasca population from the Las Trancas Valley.

Este estudio analiza la relación entre intensificación agrícola y complejidad social en las poblaciones del pasado a través de los nasca, una población diacrónica y bien contextualizada procedente de la costa sur del Perú (1–750 D.C.). Mediante el análisis de isótopos estables presentes en el colágeno de huesos humanos, examinamos algunas de las propuestas que surgen de la relación entre intensificación agrícola y complejidad social durante la época nasca, como por ejemplo la construcción de galerías subterráneas de filtración (puquios). Los datos obtenidos por este estudio demuestran que, aunque es posible que la intensificación agrícola haya estimulado una mayor complejidad social entre los nasca, este mismo proceso de intensificación generó pocas diferencias significativas en el acceso a productos alimenticios. Los individuos de mayor rango en la sociedad nasca tenían mejor acceso a proteína animal (carne) que los individuos de menor rango, especialmente durante periodos caracterizados por conflictos sociales, el incremento de rutas comerciales, y la intensificación agrícola. El consumo de carne pudo haber sido un importante marcador de rango entre los nasca. Las élites nasca, sin embargo, no mantenían control sobre el acceso a productos agrícolas tales como el maíz con la misma eficacia que en el caso de la carne. Los datos obtenidos sobre la dieta de esta población soportan un argumento a favor de un proceso local de innovación e intensificación agrícola como el principal catalizador de la posterior complejidad social en la población nasca del valle de Las Trancas.

Type
Themed Section: Diet, Disease, and Social Change
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 23 , Issue 4 , December 2012 , pp. 490 - 508
Copyright
Copyright © 2012 by the Society for American Archaeology.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Ambrose, Stanley, and Norr, Lynette 1992 On Stable Isotopic Data and Prehistoric Subsistence in the Soconusco Region. Current Anthropology 33:401–404.Google Scholar
Ambrose, Stanley, Buikstra, Jane, and Krueger, Harold W. 2003 Status and Gender Differences in Diet at Mound 72, Cahokia, Revealed by Isotopic Analysis of Bone. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:217–226.Google Scholar
Ames, Kenneth 1994 The Northwest Coast: Complex Hunter-Gatherers, Ecology, and Social Evolution. Annual Review of Anthropology 23:209–229.Google Scholar
Ames, Kenneth 2003 The Northwest Coast. Evolutionary Anthropology 12:19–33.Google Scholar
Aufderheide, Arthur, Kelley, Mark, Rivera, Mario, Gray, Luz, Tieszen, Larry, Iversen, Elysha, Roy Krouse, H., and Carevic, Alvaro 1994 Contributions of Chemical Dietary Reconstruction to the Assessment of Adaptation by Ancient Highland Immigrants (Alto Ramirez) to Coastal Conditions at Pisagua, North Chile. Journal of Archaeological Science 21:515–524.Google Scholar
Bentley, R. Alexander 2006 Strontium Isotopes from the Earth to the Archaeological Skeleton: A Review. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 13(3): 135–187.Google Scholar
Bogaard, Amy, Heaton, Tim, Pulton, Paul, Merbach, Ines 2007 The Impact of Manuring on Nitrogen Isotope Ratios in Cereals: Archaeological Implications for Reconstruction of Diet and Crop Management Practices. Journal of Archaeological Science 34(3):335–343.Google Scholar
Boserup, Esther 1965 The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. Aldine Transaction, New York.Google Scholar
Carmichael, Patrick 1995 Nasca Burial Patterns: Social Structure and Mortuary Ideology. In Tombs for the Living: Andean Mortuary Practices, edited by Tom Dillehay, pp. 161–187. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Cohen, Mark Nathan 1977 The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Conlee, Christina, and Schreiber, Katharina J. 2006 The Role of Intermediate Elites in the Balkanization and Reformation of Post-Wari Society in Nasca, Peru. In Intermediate Elite Agency in Precolumbian States and Empires, edited by Christina M. Elson and R.Alan Covey, pp. 94–111. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Danforth, Marie E. 1999 Nutrition and Politics in Prehistory. Annual Review of Anthropology 28:1–25.Google Scholar
DeNiro, Michael J. 1988 Marine Food Sources for Prehistoric Coastal Peruvian Camelids: Isotopic Evidence and Implications. In Economic Prehistory of the Central Andes, edited by Elizabeth S. Wing and Jane C. Wheeler, pp.119–128. BAR International Series No. 427. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
DeNiro, Michael, and Epstein, Samuel 1978 Influence of Diet on the Distribution of Carbon Isotopes in Animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 42:495–506.Google Scholar
DeNiro, Michael, and Epstein, Samuel 1981 Influence of Diet on the Distribution of Nitrogen Isotopes in Animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 45:341–351.Google Scholar
DeNiro, Michael, and Schoeninger, Margaret J. 1983 Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios of Bone Collagen: Variations Within Individuals, Between Sexes, and Within Populations Raised on Monotonous Diets. Journal of Archaeological Science 10:199–203.Google Scholar
Ericson, Jonathan E., West, Michael, Sullivan, Charles, and Krueger, Harold W. 1989 The Development of Maize Agriculture in the Viru Valley, Peru. In The Chemistry of Prehistoric Human Bone, edited by T. Douglas Price, pp. 68–103. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Emery, Kitty 2003 The Noble Beast: Status and Differential Access to Animals in the Maya World. World Archaeology 34(3):498–515.Google Scholar
Erickson, Clark L. 1992 Prehistoric Landscape Management in the Andean Highlands: Raised Field Agriculture and its Environmental Impact. Population and Environment 13(4):285–300.Google Scholar
Erickson, Clark L. 2006 Intensification, Political Economy, and the Farming Community. In Agricultural Strategies, edited by Joyce Marcus and Charles Stanish, pp. 334–363. UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Ezzo, Joseph 1994 Paleonutrition at Grasshopper Pueblo, Arizona. In Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of Prehistoric Americons, edited by Kristin Sobolik, pp. 265–279. Center for Archaeological Investigations Occasional Paper No. 22. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Feinman, Gary, and Neitzel, Jill 1984 Too Many Types: An Overview of Sedentary Pre-State Societies in the Americas. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 7, edited by Michael Schiffer, pp. 39–102. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.Google Scholar
Finucane, Brian 2009 Maize and Sociopolitical Complexity in the Ayacucho Valley, Peru. Current Anthropology 50(4):535–545.Google Scholar
Finucane, Brian, Maita, Patricia, and Isbell, William 2006 Human and Animal Diet at Conchopata, Peru: Stable Isotope Evidence for Maize Agriculture and Animal Management Practices during the Middle Horizon. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:1766–1776.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul 2000 Exotic Goods and Everyday Chiefs: Long-Distance Exchange and Indigenous Sociopolitical Development in the South-Central Andes. Latin American Antiquity 11:335–361.Google Scholar
Grobman, Alexander, Salhuana, Wilfredo, and Sevilla, Ricardo 1961 Races of Maize in Peru: Their Origins, Evolution, and Classification. Publication No. 915. National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council, Washington, D C. Google Scholar
Gumerman, George IV 1997 Food and Complex Societies. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 4(2): 105–139.Google Scholar
Gumerman, George IV 2002 Llama Power and Empowered Fisherman: Food and Power at Pacatnamu, Peru. In The Dynamics of Power, edited by Maria O’Donovan, pp. 238–256. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine 1991 Gender, Space, and Food in Prehistory. In Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory, edited by Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey, pp. 132–159. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, United Kingdom.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine 2001 Agricultural Production and Consumption. In Empire and Domestic Economy, edited by Terence D’Altroy and Christine Hastorf, pp. 155–178. Kluwer Academic, New York.Google Scholar
Hayashida, Francis 2006 The Pampa of Chaparrí: Water, Land, and Politics on the North Coast of Peru. Latin American Antiquity 17:243–263.Google Scholar
Hedman, Kristin, Hargrave, Eve, and Ambrose, Stanley 2002 Late Mississippian Diet in the American Bottom: Stable Isotope Analyses of Bone Collagen and Apatite. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 27(2):237–271.Google Scholar
Hrdlička, Aleš 1914 Anthropological Work in Peru in 1913, with Notes on the Pathology of the Ancient Peruvians. Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections 61(18):1–69.Google Scholar
Jackson, H. Edwin, and Scott, Susan 1995 The Faunal Record of the Southeastern Elite: The Implications of Economy, Social Relations, and Ideology. Southeastern Archaeology 14:103–119.Google Scholar
Jennings, Justin 2005 La Chichera y El Patrón: Chicha and the Energetics of Feasting in the Prehistoric Andes. In Foundations of Power in the Ancient Andes, edited by Kevin Vaughn, Dennis Ogburn, and Christina Conlee, pp. 241–259. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association No. 14, American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia.Google Scholar
Johannessen, Sissel, and Hastorf, Christine A. 1989 Corn and Culture in Central Andean Prehistory. Science 244(4905):690–692.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. Anne 2008 Stable Isotope Analysis: A Tool for Studying Past Diet, Demography, and Life History. In Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton. 2nd ed., edited by M. Anne Katzenberg and Shelley R. Saunders, pp. 413–442. Wiley-Liss, New York.Google Scholar
Katzenberg, M. Anne, Schwarcz, Henry, Knyf, Martin, and Jerome Melbye, F. 1995 Stable Isotope Evidence for Maize Horticulture and Paleodiet in Southern Ontario, Canada. American Antiquity 60:335–350.Google Scholar
Kellner, Corina M. 2002 Coping with Environmental and Social Challenges in Prehistoric Peru: Bioarchaeological Analyses of Nasca Populations. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Kellner, Corina M. 2006 Wari Imperial Influence on Nasca Head-Taking Practices. In Skull Collection, Decoration, and Modification, edited by Michelle Bonogofsky, pp. 101–112. BAR International Series No. 1539. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Kellner, Corina M., and Schoeninger, Margaret J. 2007 A Simple Carbon Isotope Model for Reconstructing Prehistoric Human Diet. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 133:1112–1127.Google Scholar
Kellner, Corina M., and Schoeninger, Margaret J. 2008 Wari’s Influence on Local Nasca Diet: The Stable Isotope Evidence. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27:226–243.Google Scholar
Kellner, Corina M., Somerville, Andrew, Schoeninger, Margaret 2011 Strontium Isotope Analyses of Human Bone Reveal No Wari State Emissaries in the Las Trancas Valley of the Nasca Region of Peru (A.D. 750–1000). Poster presented at the 80th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Minneapolis, Minnesota.Google Scholar
Kellner, Corina M., Spielmann, Katherine, Moore, Katherine, Schoeninger, Margaret 2010 Stable Isotope Data Show Temporal Stability in Diet at Pecos Pueblo and Diet Variation Among Southwest Pueblos. In Pecos Pueblo Revisited: The Biological and Social Context, edited by Michele Morgan, pp. 79–92. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 85. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Kirch, Patrick, and O’Day, Sharyn Jones 2003 New Archaeological Insights into Food and Status: A Case Study from Pre-Contact Hawaii. World Archaeology 34:484–497.Google Scholar
Knudson, Kelly, Williams, Sloan, Osborn, Rebecca, Forgey, Kathleen, and Williams, Patrick Ryan 2009 The Geographic Origins of Nasca Trophy Heads using Strontium, Oxygen, and Carbon Isotope Data. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28:244–257.Google Scholar
Lane, Kevin 2009 Engineered Highlands: The Social Organization of Water in the Ancient North-Central Andes (A.D. 1000–1480). World Archaeology 41:169–190.Google Scholar
Larsen, Clark Spencer, Schoeninger, Margaret J., Van der Merwe, Nikolas J., and Lee-Thorp, Julia A. 1992 Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotopic Signatures of Human Dietary Change in the Georgia Bight. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 89:197–214.Google Scholar
Le Huray, Jonathan and Schutkowski, Holger 2005 Diet and Social Status during the La Tène period in Bohemia: Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotope Analysis of Bone Collagen from Kutná Hora-Karlov and Radovesice. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 24(2): 135–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lima, Mauricio, Stenseth, Nils, Leirs, Herwig, and Jaksic, Fabian M. 2003 Population Dynamics of Small Mammals in Semi-Arid Regions: A Comparative Study of Demographic Variability in Two Rodent Species. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 270:1997–2007.Google Scholar
Little, Elizabeth A., and Schoeninger, Margaret J. 1995 The Late Woodland Diet on Nantucket Island and the Problem of Maize in Coastal New England. American Antiquity 60:351–368.Google Scholar
Liu, L., Chen, Xingcan, Lee, Yun K., Wright, Henry, and Rosen, Arlene 2002 Settlement Patterns and Development of Social Complexity in the Yiluo Region, North China. Journal of Field Archaeology 29:75–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marcus, Joyce, and Stanish, Charles (editors) 2006 Agricultural Strategies. UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Menzel, Dorothy 1959 The Inca Occupation of the South Coast of Peru. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 15:125–142.Google Scholar
Minnegal, Monica, and Dwyer, Peter 1998 Intensification and Social Complexity in the Interior Lowlands of Paupa New Guinea: A Comparison of Bedamuni and Kubo. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 17:375–400.Google Scholar
Moseley, Michael, and Deeds, Eric 1982 The Land in Front of Chan Chan: Agrarian Expansion, Reform, and Collapse in the Moche Valley. In Chan Chan: Andean Desert City, edited by Michael Moseley, Kent Day, and Douglas Schwartz, pp. 25–53. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Netherly, Patricia 1984 The Management of Late Andean Irrigation Systems on the North Coast of Peru. American Antiquity 49:227–254.Google Scholar
Nicholson, G. Edward 1960 Maize Types and Chicha Manufacture in Peru. Economic Botany 14: 290–299.Google Scholar
Novoa Bollota, Pedro 2002 Arqueología de la cuenca del río Grande de Nasca: Cuadernos de investigatión del Archivo Tello, 3. Museo de Arqueología y Antropología de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru.Google Scholar
O’Leary, Marion H. 1988 Carbon Isotopes in Photosynthesis. BioScience 38:328–336.Google Scholar
Pérez, Eddy, Pacheco, Luis 2006 Damage by Large Mammals to Subsistence Crops within a Protected Area in a Montane Forest of Bolivia. Crop Protection 25:933–939.Google Scholar
Pérez Rodríguez, Verónica 2006 States and Households: The Social Organization of Terrace Agriculture in Postclassic Mixteca Alta, Oaxaca, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 17:3–22.Google Scholar
Phillips, Donald L., Koch, Paul L. 2002 Incorporating Concentration Dependence in Stable Isotope Mixing Models. Oecologia 130:114–125.Google Scholar
Reed, David 1994 Ancient Maya Diet at Copán, Honduras, as Determined through the Analysis of Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes. In Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of Prehistoric Americans, edited by Kristin Sobolik, pp. 210–220. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 22. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Renneberg, Rebecca, Hummel, Suzanne, Herrmann, Bernd 2009 The Nasca and Their Dear Creatures: Molecular Genetic Analysis of Pre-Columbian Camelid Bones and Textiles. In New Technologies for Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Investigations in Palpa and Nasca, Peru, edited by Markus Reindel and Gunther A. Wagner, pp. 193–206. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Sandweiss, Rodríguez, del Carmen, María 1993 Malacological Analysis. In Cahuachi in the Ancient World, edited by Helaine Silverman, pp. 294–299. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Rowe, John 1956 Archaeological Explorations in Southern Peru, 1954–1955. American Antiquity 22:135–151.Google Scholar
Sandness, Karin 1992 Temporal and Spatial Dietary Variability in the Osmore Drainage, Southern Peru: The Isotope Evidence. Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Schoeninger, Margaret 1985 Trophic Level Effects on 15N/14N and 13C/12C Ratios in Bone Collagen and Strontium Levels in Bone Mineral. Journal of Human Evolution 14:151–525.Google Scholar
Schoeninger, Margaret, DeNiro, Michael 1984 Nitrogen and Carbon Stable Isotope Ratios of Bone Collagen Reflect Marine and Terrestrial Components of Prehistoric Human Diet. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48:625–639.Google Scholar
Schoeninger, Margaret J., DeNiro, Michael J., and Tauber, Henrik 1983 15N/14N Ratios of Bone Collagen Reflect Marine and Terrestrial Components of Prehistoric Human Diet. Science 220:1381–1383.Google Scholar
Schoeninger, Margaret, Schurr, Mark 1998 Human Subsistence at Moundville: The Stable-Isotope Evidence. In Archaeology of the Moundville Chiefdom, edited by Vernon J. Knight, Jr. and Vincas P. Steponaitis, pp. 120–132. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Schoeninger, Margaret J., Iwaniec, Ursula T., and Glander, Ken E. 1997 Stable Isotope Ratios Monitor Diet and Habitat Use in New World Monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 103:69–83.Google Scholar
Schoeninger, Margaret J., Moore, Katherine, Murray, Matthew L., and Kingston, John 1989 Detection of Bone Preservation in Archaeological and Fossil Samples. Journal of Applied Geochemistry 4:281–292.Google Scholar
Schoeninger, Margaret J., van der Merwe, Nikolas J., Moore, Katherine, Lee-Thorp, Julia, and Larsen, Clark S. 1990 Decrease in Diet Quality Between the Prehistoric and Contact periods. In The Archaeology of Mission Santa Catalina de Guale: 2. Biocultural Interpretations of a Population in Transition, edited by Clark S. Larsen, pp. 78–93. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History Vol. 68. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Schreiber, Katharina, and Rojas, Josue Lancho 2003 Irrigation and Society in the Peruvian Desert: The Puquios of Nasca. Lexington, Lanham, Maryland.Google Scholar
Schurr, Mark, and Schoeninger, Margaret J. 1995 Associations between Agricultural Intensification and Social Complexity. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 14:315–339.Google Scholar
Sealy, Judith 1986 Stable Carbon Isotopes and Prehistoric Diets in the South-Western Cape Province, South Africa. BAR International Series No. 293. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Sejuro, Olivia 1990 Plantas medicinales utilizadas por los curanderos de Nasca: Registro gráfico botánico. Boletín de Investigacions en Tecnologías Nativas 5. Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovatión Tecnologías, Lima, Peru.Google Scholar
Shearer, G., and Kohl, D. H. 1986 N2-Fixation in Field Settings: Estimations Based on Natural 15N Abundance. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 13:699–756.Google Scholar
Shimada, Izumi, Schaaf, Crystal B., Thompson, Lonnie G., and Moseley-Thompson, Ellen 1991 Cultural Impacts of Severe Droughts in the Prehistoric Andes: Application of a 1,500-Year Ice Core Precipitation Record. World Archaeology 22:247–270.Google Scholar
Shimada, Melody, Shimada, Izumi 1985 Prehistoric Llama Breeding on the North Coast of Peru. American Antiquity 50:3–26.Google Scholar
Silverman, Helaine 1993 Cahuachi in the Ancient Nasca World. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 1994 The Hydraulic Hypothesis Revisited: A Theoretical Perspective on Lake Titicaca Basin Raised Field Agriculture. Latin American Antiquity 5:312–332.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 2007 Agricultural Intensification in the Titicaca Basin. In Seeking a Richer Harvest: The Archaeology of Subsistence Intensification, Innovation, and Change, edited by Tina L. Thurston and Christopher T. Fisher, pp. 125–139. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Tainter, Joseph 2006 Social Complexity and Sustainability. Ecological Complexity 3:91–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tello, Julio C. 1917 Los antiguos cemeterios del Valle de Nasca. In Proceedings of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress, edited by Glen Levin Swiggert, pp. 283–291. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Thompson, Lonnie G., Moseley-Thompson, Ellen, Bolzan, John F., and Koci, Bruce R. 1985 A 1500-Year Record of Tropical Precipitation in Ice Cores from the Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peru. Science 229:971–973.Google Scholar
Thurston, Tina L., and Fisher, Christopher T. (editors) 2007 Seeking a Richer Harvest: The Archaeology of Subsistence Intensification, Innovation, and Change. Springer: New York.Google Scholar
Ting, Irwin P., and Gibbs, Martin (editors) 1982 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism. Waverly, Baltimore, Maryland.Google Scholar
Tomasto, Elsa 2009 Talking Bones: Bioarchaeological Analysis of Individuals from Palpa. In New Technologies for Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Investigations in Palpa and Nasca, Peru, edited by Markus Reindel and Gunther A. Wagner, pp. 141–158. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Tomczak, Paula 2003 Prehistoric Diet and Socioeconomic Relationships within the Osmore Valley of Southern Peru. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:262–278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trawick, Paul B. 2003 The Struggle for Water in Peru: Comedy and Tragedy in the Andean Commons. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.Google Scholar
Trawick, Paul B. 2008 The Moral Economy of Water: Equity and Antiquity in the Andean Commons. American Anthropologist 103:361–379.Google Scholar
Tucker, Bryan 2002 Culinary Confusion: Using Osteological and Stable Isotope Evidence to Reconstruct Paleodiet for the Ocmulgee/Blackshear Cordmarked People of South Central Georgia. Master’s thesis, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.Google Scholar
Tucker, Bryan 2007 The Omulgee/Blackshear People and the Middleman Hypothesis: An Isotopic Evaluation. Southeastern Archaeology 26(1):124–133.Google Scholar
Turner, Bethany L., Kingston, John D., Armelagos, George J. 2010 Variation in Dietary Histories among the Immigrants of Machu Picchu: Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Evidence. Chungara: Revista de Antropología Chilena 42(2):515–534.Google Scholar
Ubelaker, Douglas, Anne Katzenberg, M., and Doyon, Leon G. 1995 Status and Diet in Precontact Ecuador. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 97:403–411.Google Scholar
Uhle, Max 1914 The Nazca Pottery of Ancient Peru. Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Sciences 13:1–46.Google Scholar
Valdez Cardenas, Lidio M. 1988 Los camélidos en la subsistencia nasca: El caso de Kawachi. Boletín de Lima 57:31–35.Google Scholar
Vaughn, Kevin 2004 Households, Crafts, and Feasting in the Ancient Andes: The Village Context of Early Nasca Craft Consumption. Latin American Antiquity 15:61–88.Google Scholar
Verano, John, DeNiro, Michael 1993 Locals or Foreigners? Morphological, Biometric, and Isotopic Approaches to the Question of Group Affinity in Human Skeletal Remains Recovered from Unusual Archaeological Contexts. In Investigation of Ancient Human Tissue, edited by Mary Sandford, pp. 361–386. Gordon and Breach, New York.Google Scholar
Virginia, Ross A., Delwiche, Constant Colin 1982 Natural 15N Abundance of Presumed N2-Fixing and Non N2-Fixing Plants from Selected Ecosystems. Oecologia 54:317–325.Google Scholar
Welch, Paul D., and Margaret Scarry, C. 1995 Status-related Variation in Foodways in the Moundville Chiefdom. American Antiquity 60:397–419.Google Scholar
White, Christine 2005 Gendered Food Behavior Among the Maya: Time, Place, Status and Ritual. Journal of Social Archaeology 5:356–382.Google Scholar
White, Christine, Nelson, Andrew J., Longstaffe, Fred J., Grupe, Gisela, and Jung, Anna 2009 Landscape Bioarchaeology at Pacatnamu,Peru: Inferring Mobility from δ13C and δ15N Values of Hair. Journal of Archaeological Science 36:1527–1537.Google Scholar
White, Christine D., Healy, Paul F.; Schwarcz, Henry P. 1993 Intensive Agriculture, Social Status, and Maya Diet at Pacbitun, Belize. Journal of Anthropological Research 49(4):347–375.Google Scholar
Williams, P. Ryan 2006 Agricultural Innovation, Intensification, and Sociopolitical Development: The Case of Highland Irrigation Agriculture on the Pacific Andean Watersheds. In Agricultural Strategies, edited by Joyce Marcus and Charles Stanish, pp. 309–333. UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Wittfogel, Karl 1957 Oriental Despotism. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.Google Scholar