Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-08T01:24:28.104Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Architecture, Settlement, and Formative Developments in the Equatorial Andes: New Discoveries in the Department of Tumbes, Peru

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Jerry D. Moore
Jerry D. Moore*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, California State University Dominguez Hills, 1000 E. Victoria St., Carson, CA 90747 ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The cultural transformations associated with the Formative period are pivotal for understanding the prehistory of the Americas. Over the last five decades, investigations in southwestern Ecuador have provided an early and robust set of archaeological data relating to Archaic-to-Formative transformations as exemplified by the Las Vegas, Valdivia, Machalilla, and Chorrera archaeological traditions. However, recent archaeological research in adjacent zones of the equatorial Andes indicates that the transformations in southwestern Ecuador were paralleled by coeval but distinct developments. Recent (2006–2007) excavations in the Department of Tumbes, Peru, have documented previously unknown Formative transformations, including the development of substantial domestic architecture during the Archaic (ca. 4700–4330 B.C.E.) and early Formative (ca. 3500–3100 B.C.E.), the shift from elliptical pole-and-thatch dwellings to rectangular wattle-and-daub structures at ca. 900–500 B.C.E., and the construction of public architecture and the establishment of a two-tiered settlement system by ca. 1000–800 B.C.E. These recently discovered archaeological patterns from Tumbes and additional data from southern Ecuador provide the basis for revised comparative perspectives in which southwestern Ecuador is a significant—but no longer the only—vantage point for understanding the evolution of Formative societies in the equatorial Andes.

Las transformaciones culturales asociadas con el Formativo son claves para nuestro entendimiento de la prehistoria americana. En los andes ecuatoriales, la península Santa Elena y las zonas cercanas del suroeste de Ecuador, nos han presentado un temprano y robusto conjunto de datos arqueológicos sobre las transformaciones del Arcaico al Formativo como las culturas arqueológicas de Las Vegas, Valdivia, Machalilla, y Chorrera. Sin embargo, investigaciones recientes en zonas aledañas de los Andes ecuatoriales muestran que las transformaciones que ocurrieron en el suroeste de Ecuador fueron acompañadas por desarrollos coetáneos pero distintos en el sur de Ecuador y el norte del Perú. Investigaciones recientes (2006–2007) en el Departmento de Tumbes, Perú, descubrieron datos nuevos sobre el proceso Formativo y sus antecedentes en tres sitios: El Porvenir, Santa Rosa, y Uña de Gato. Entre otros hallazgos, se incluyen los restos de una estructura del la época Arcaica de A.C. 4700–4330, una casa elíptica con tamaño 12.8 × 11 m con una fecha de A.C. 3500–3100, y una secuencia de estructuras que marca el cambio ca. A.C. 950/800 a 500 de estructuras elípticas hechas de palma y poste a estructuras rectangulares hechas de bahareque. Además, las excavaciones establecieron el desarrollo de arquitectura pública que comenzó posiblemente para A.C. 1400 pero claramente fue establecida para A.C. 1000–800, una época marcada también por un cambio fundamental en los patrones de asentamiento en cual Uña de Gato fue el centro regional y El Porvenir una aldea pequeña. En fin, los descubrimientos nuevos de Tumbes y otros datos comparativos nos presentan una visión amplia en cual la península de Santa Elena representa una importante, pero no la única, punto de vista para entender la evolución de las sociedades del Formativo enlos Andes ecuatoriales.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 21 , Issue 2 , June 2010 , pp. 147 - 172
Copyright
Copyright © 2010 by the Society for American Archaeology.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abrams, Elliot 1989 Architecture and Energy: An Evolutionary Approach. In Archaeological Method and Theory, edited by M. Schiffer, Vol. 1:47–87. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Beck, Robin A. Jr., Bolender, Douglas J., Brown, James A., and Eaile, Timothy K. 2008 Eventful Archaeology: The Place of Space in Structural Transformation. Current Anthropology 49(2):833–860.Google Scholar
Bischof, Henning, and Gamboa, Julio Viteri 1972 Pre-Valdivia Occupations on the Southwest Coast of Ecuador. American Antiquity 37:548–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bischof, Henning, and Gamboa, Julio Viteri 2006 Entre Vegas y Valdivia: La fase San Pedro en el suroeste del Ecuador. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines 35(3):361–376.Google Scholar
Bowser, Brenda, and Patton, John Q. 2004 Domestic Spaces as Public Places: An Ethnoarchaeological Case Study of Houses, Gender, and Politics in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 11:157–181.Google Scholar
Bruhns, Karen 2003 Social and Cultural Development in the Ecuadorian Highlands and Eastern Lowlands During the Formative. In The Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J. Scott Raymond and Richard Burger, pp. 125–174. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Burger, Richard 2003 Conclusions: Cultures of the Ecuadorian Formative in Their Andean Context. In The Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J. Scott Raymond and Richard Burger, pp. 465–487. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Burger, Richard, Asaro, Frank, Michel, Helen, Stross, Fred, and Salazar, Ernesto 1994 An Initial Consideration of Obsidian Procurement and Exchange in Prehispanic Ecuador. Latin American Antiquity 5(3):228–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Childe, V. Gordon 1974 [1936] The Urban Revolution. In The Rise and Fall of Civilizations: Modern Archaeological Approaches to Ancient Cultures, edited by C. Lamberg-Karlovsky and J. Sabloff, pp. 6–14. Cummings Publishing Co., Menlo Park.Google Scholar
Currie, Elisabeth 1985 La cultural Jambelí con referencia particular al conchero Guarumal. In Memoria del Primer Simposio Europeo Sobre Antropología del Ecuador, edited by Segundo Moreno Yanez, pp. 31–46. Ediciones Abya Yala, Quito.Google Scholar
Currie, Elisabeth 1989 Cultural Relationships in Southern Ecuador 300 BC–AD 300: Excavations in the Guarumal and Punta Brava Sites. Unpublished Ph.D. diss., Institute of Archaeology, University College, London.Google Scholar
Currie, Elisabeth 1995 Prehistory of the Southern Manabí Coast, Ecuador: López Viejo. BAR International Series 618. Oxford.Google Scholar
Damp, Jonathan 1979 Better Homes and Gardens: The Life and Death of the Early Valdivia Community. Unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Calgary.Google Scholar
Damp, Jonathan 1984 Architecture of the Early Valdivia Village. American Antiquity 49:573–585.Google Scholar
Damp, Jonathan 1988 La Primera Ocupación Valdivia de Real Alto: Patrones Económicos, Arquitectónicos e Ideológicos. Escuela Politécnica de Literal, Centro de Estudios Arqueológicos y Antropológicos, Guayaquil.Google Scholar
Descola, Phillipe 1996 The Spears of Twilight: Life and Death in the Amazon Jungle. New Press, New York.Google Scholar
Erasmus, Charles 1965 Monument Building: Some Field Experiments. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 21(4):277–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estrada, Emilio, Meggers, Betty, and Evans, Clifford 1964 The Jambelí Culture of South Coastal Ecuador. Proceedings of the United States National Museum 115:483–558. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Clifford, and Meggers, Betty 1957 Formative Period Cultures of the Guayas Basin, Coastal Ecuador. American Antiquity 22:235–247.Google Scholar
Flannery, Kent 1972 The Origins of the Village as a Settlement Type in Mesoamerica and the Near East: A Comparative Study. In Man, Settlement, and Urbanism, edited by P. J. Ucko, R. Tringham, and G. W. Dimbleby, pp. 23–53. Duckworth, London.Google Scholar
Flannery, Kent 2002 The Origins of the Village Revisited: From Nuclear to Extended Households. American Antiquity 67(3):417–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, James A. 1969 A Comparison of Formative Cultures in the Americas. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, 11, Smithsonian Institution. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Fresco, Antonio 1983 La Red Vial Incaica en la Sierra Sur del Ecuador, Algunos Datos para su Estudio. Cultura 5(15): 109–148.Google Scholar
Gomis, Dominique 1999 La Cerámica Formativa Tardia de la Sierra Austral del Ecuador (Cañar, Azuay y Loja): Unidad territorial y particularidades regionales. In Formativo Sudamericano: Una Revaluación, edited by Paulina Ledergerber-Crespo, pp. 139–159. Ediciones Abya-Yala, Quito.Google Scholar
Grieder, Terence, Farmer, James D., Carillo, Antonio, and Jones, Bradford M. 2002 Art and Prestige Among the Noble Houses of the Equatorial Andes. In Andean Archaeology II: Art, Landscape, and Society, edited by Helaine Silverman and William Isbell, pp. 157–177. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grieder, Terence, Farmer, James D., Hill, David V., Stahl, Peter W., and Ubelaker, Douglas H. 2009 Art and Archaeology of Challuabamba, Ecuador. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Guffroy, Jean 2004 Catamayo Precolombino: Investigaciones Arqueológicos en la provincia de Loja (Ecuador). Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Orleáns.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guffroy, Jean 2008 Cultural Boundaries and Crossings: Ecuador and Peru. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, pp. 889–902. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Guffroy, Jean (editor) 1994 Cerro Ñañañique: Un établissement Monumental de la Période Formative, en limite de désert (Haut Piura, Peru). Edicciones Ostrom, Paris.Google Scholar
Guffroy, Jean, Kaulicke, Peter, and Makowski, Krysztof 1989 La Prehistoria del Departamento de Piura: Estado de los Conocimientos y Problemática. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines 22(3):701–719. Lima.Google Scholar
Harner, Michael 1972 The Jívaro: People of the Sacred Waterfall. Double-day/Natural History Press, Garden City, New York.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, Michael J. 2005 The Ecology of Power: Culture, Place and Person-hood in the Southern Amazon, AD 1000–2000. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar
Hill, Betsy D. 1975 A New Chronology of the Valdivia Ceramic Complex from the Coastal Zone of Guayas Province, Ecuador. Nawpa Pacha 10–12:1–32.Google Scholar
Hocquenghem, Ann Marie 1991 Frontera entre “Areas Culturales” Nor Andinas y Centroandinas en los Valles y en la Costa del Extremo Norte Peruano. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines 20(2):309–348.Google Scholar
Hocquenghem, Ann Marie 1998 Para Veneer la Muerte: Piura y Tumbes—Raices en el Bosque Seco y en la Selva Alta—Horizontes en el Pacífico y en la Amazonia. Travaux de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines 109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hocquenghem, Ann Marie, Idrovo, Jaime, Kaulicke, Peter, and Gomis, D. 1993 Bases de Intercambio entre Sociedades Norperuanas y Surecuatorianas: Una Zona de Transición entre 1500 A.C. y 600 D.C. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Études Andines 22(2):443–466. Lima.Google Scholar
Holm, Olaf 1985 Arquitectura Precolombina en el Litoral. Museo del Banco Central del Ecuador, Guayaquil.Google Scholar
Idrovo Urigüen, Jaime 1999 El Formativo en la sierra Ecuatoriana. In Formativo Sudamericano: Una Revaluación, edited by P. Ledergerber-Crespo, pp. 114–123. Ediciones Abya-Yala, Quito.Google Scholar
Ishida, Eichiro 1960 Andes: The Report of the University of Tokyo Scientific Expeditions to the Andes in 1958. Directed by E. Ishida. Tokyo.Google Scholar
Izumi, Seichi, and Terada, Kasuo 1961 Excavations in the Valley of Tumbes, Perú. Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nipon (Zinruigaku Zossi) 68:196–204.Google Scholar
Izumi, Seichi, and Terada, Kasuo 1966 Andes 3: Excavations at Pechiche and Garbanzal, Tumbes Valley, Perú 109.Google Scholar
Joyce, Rosemary A. 2004 Unintended Consequences? Monumentality as a Novel Experience in Formative Mesoamerica. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 11(1):5–29.Google Scholar
Kauffman Doig, Federico 1987 Notas Arqueológicas sobre la Costa Extremo Norte. Boletín de Lima 9(49):53–57.Google Scholar
Kaulicke, Peter 1998 El Periodo Formativo de Piura. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 2:19–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lathrap, Donald 1971 The Tropical Forest and the Cultural Context of Chavín. In Dumbarton Oaks Conference on Chavín, edited by Elizabeth Benson, pp. 73–100. Dumbarton Oaks Research Libraries and Collections, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Lathrap, Donald, Collier, Donald, and Chandra, Helen 1975 Ancient Ecuador: Culture, Clay and Creativity, 3000–300 BC. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.Google Scholar
Lathrap, Donald, Marcos, Jorge, and Zeidler, James 1977 Real Alto: An Ancient Ceremonial Center. Archaeology 30:2–13.Google Scholar
Lesure, Richard 1999 Platform Architecture and Activity Patterns in an Early Mesoamerican Village in Chiapas, Mexico. Journal of Field Archaeology 26:391–406.Google Scholar
Lesure, Richard, and Blake, Michael 2002 Interpretive Challenges in the Study of Early Complexity: Economy, Ritual, and Architecture at Paso de la Amada, Mexico. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 21:1–24.Google Scholar
Low, Setha 2000 On the Plaza: The Politics of Public Space and Culture. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Lumbreras, Luis 2006 Un Formativo sin cerámica y cerámica preformativa. Estudios Atacameños. Arqueología y Antropología Surandinas 32:11–34.Google Scholar
Lunniss, Richard 2008 Where the Land and the Ocean Meet: The Engoroy Phase Ceremonial Site at Salando, Ecuador, 600–100 BC. In Pre-Columbian Landscapes of Creation and Origin, edited by John Staller, pp. 203–248. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Malpass, Michael, and Stothert, Karen 1992 Evidence for Preceramic Houses and Household Organization in Western South America. Andean Past 3:137–164.Google Scholar
Marcos, Jorge 1978 The Ceremonial Precinct at Real Alto: Organization of Time and Space in Valdivia Society. Unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Marcos, Jorge 1988 Real Alto: La Historia de un Centra Ceremonial Valdivia. Biblioteca Ecuatoriana de Arqueología, 4 (Primera and Segunda Partes), Escuela Politécnica del Litoral—Centro de Estudios Arqueológicos y Antropológicos, Guayaquil. Corporación Editorial Nacional, Quito.Google Scholar
Marcos, Jorge 1998 A Reassessment of the Chronology of the Ecuadorian Formative. In El Área Septrentrional Andina: Arqueología y Etnohistoria, edited by Mercedes Guinea, pp. 295–346. Biblioteca Abya-Yala, Quito.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marcos, Jorge 2003 A Reassessment of the Ecuadorian Formative. In The Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J. Scott Raymond and Richard Burger, pp. 7–32. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Marcos, Jorge, and Michczynski, Adam 1996 Good Dates and Bad Dates in Ecuador: Radiocarbon Samples and Archaeological Excavation: A Commentary on the “Valdivia Absolute Chronology.” In Proceedings of the Third Latin American Congress of the University of Varsovia, Varsovia and Biskupin-Wenecja. Andean Archaeological Mission of the Institute of Archaeology, Warsaw University, Warsaw.Google Scholar
Marcos, Jorge, Pérez, Aurelio Álvarez, and Spinolo, Giorgio 1999 La Producción Durante el Formativo Temprano: El Desarrollo Agrícola, Artesanal y el Intercambio de Exóticos en Real Alto. In Formativo Sudamericano: Una Revaluación, edited by P. Ledergerber-Crespo, pp. 97–113. Ediciones Abya-Yala, Quito.Google Scholar
Meggers, Betty J. 1966 Ecuador. Praeger, New York.Google Scholar
Meggers, Betty J., and Evans, Clifford 1962 The Machalilla Culture: An Early Formative Complex on the Ecuadorian Coast. American Antiquity 28(2): 186–192.Google Scholar
Meggers, Betty J., Evans, Clifford. and Estrada, Emilio 1965 Early Formative Period of Coastal Ecuador: The Valdivia and Machalilla Phases. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 1, Smithsonian Institution. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Mejía Xesspe, Toribio 1960 Algunos Nuevos elementos de la Civilización Recuay—Pasto en el extremo norte del litoral peruano. In Antiguo Perú, Espacio y Tiempo, edited by Juan Mejía Baca, pp. 205–217. Semana de la Arqueología Peruana, Lima.Google Scholar
Moore, Jerry 1996 Architecture and Power in the Prehispanic Andes: The Archaeology of Public Buildings. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Moore, Jerry 2005 Cultural Landscapes in the Prehispanic Andes: Archaeologies of Place. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Moore, Jerry 2007 Early 5th Millennium B.C. Prehispanic Architecture in Far Northern Peru. Antiquity Project Gallery. Electronic document, https://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/moorel/index.html.Google Scholar
Moore, Jerry 2008 El Periodo Intermedio Tardío en el Departamento de Tumbes. Revista del Museo de Antropología, Arqueología e Historia, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Perú 10:155–175.Google Scholar
Moore, Jerry, Manrique, Daniel Dávila, and Pajuelo, Eva (editors) 2008 Proyecto Arqueológico Tumbes: Excavaciones en Santa Rosa y Uña de Gato, Departamento de Tumbes, Temporada 2007. Technical report submitted to the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima.Google Scholar
Moore, Jerry, Olaya, Bernardino Olaya, and Mendoza, Wilson Puell 1997 Investigaciones del Imperio Chimú en el valle de Tumbes, Perú. Revista del Museo de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia 7:173–184.Google Scholar
Moore, Jerry, Vilchez, Carolina Maria, Olaya, Bernardino Olaya, Pajuelo, Eva, and Bryan, Andrew 2005 Informe Técnico: 2003 Excavaciones en el sitio Loma Saavedra. Report on file, Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima.Google Scholar
Ogburn, Dennis 2007 Source Provenance of Obsidian Artifacts from Northern Peru. Berkeley Archaeological Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Pajuelo, Eva 2006 Reassessing the Frontier: Implications of New Research in Tumbes, Peru. MS on file at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Pajuelo, Eva 2007 Cerámica. In Proyecto Arqueológico Tumbes: Excavaciones en El Povenir y Loma Saavedra, Departamento de Tumbes, Temporada 2006, edited by Carolina Vílchez, Jerry Moore, and Eva Pajuelo, pp. 181–186. Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Tumbes, Peru.Google Scholar
Pajuelo, Eva 2008 Cerámica. In Proyecto Arqueológico Tumbes: Excavaciones en Santa Rosa y Uña de Gato, Departamento de Tumbes, Temporada 2007, edited by Jerry Moore, Daniel Dávila Manrique, and Eva Pajuelo, pp. 245–252. Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Tumbes, Peru.Google Scholar
Pajuelo, Eva, and Moore, Jerry 2005 Reclaiming the Frontier: Material Expressions and the Appropriation of the Past in Late Prehispanic Tumbes, Peru. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Institute for Andean Studies, Berkeley, January 7–8.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah 1978 Phytolith Analysis of Archaeological Soils: Evidence for Maize Cultivation in Formative Ecuador. Science 199:177–178.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah 2002 Maize Is Still Ancient in Prehistoric Ecuador: The View from Real Alto, with Comments on Staller and Thompson. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:51–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearsall, Deborah, and Piperno, Dolores 1990 Antiquity of Maize Cultivation in Ecuador: Summary and Reevaluation of the Evidence. American Antiquity 5:324–337.Google Scholar
Ravines, Rogger 1973 Conchales del Río Zarumilla, Perú. Revista del Museo Nacional 39.Google Scholar
Ravines, Rogger, and Matos, Ramiro 1983 Inventario de Monumentos Arqueológicos del Perú. Zona Norte. Primera Aproximación. Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima.Google Scholar
Raymond, J. Scott 1998 Beginnings of Sedentism in the Lowlands of North-western South America. In Advances in the Archaeology of the Northern Andes, edited by A. Oyuela-Caycedo and J. S. Raymond, pp. 10–19. Institute of Archaeology Monograph Vol. 39. University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Raymond, J. Scott 2003 Social Formations in the Western Lowlands of Ecuador During the Early Formative. In The Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J. Scott Raymond and Richard Burger, pp. 33–67. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Raymond, J. Scott, Marcos, Jorge G., and Lathrap, Donald. W. 1980 Evidence of Early Formative Settlement in the Guayas Basin, Ecuador. Current Anthropology 21(5):700—701.Google Scholar
Raymond, J. S., Oyuela-Caycedo, A., and Carmichael, P. 1998 The Earliest Ceramic Technologies of the Northern Andes: Comparative Analysis. In Andean Ceramics: Technology, Organization, and Approaches, edited by I. Shimada, pp. 153–172. MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology, Supplement to Vol. 15. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo 1959 The Formative Stage: An Appraisal from the Colombian Perspective. Actas del XXIII Congreso Internacional de Americanistas 1:152–164. San Jose, Costa Rica.Google Scholar
Richardson, James II, McConaughy, Mark, de Peña, Allison Heaps, and Zamecnik, Elena Décima 1990 The Northern Frontier of the Kingdom of Chimor: The Piura, Chira and Tumbez Valleys. In The Northern Dynasties: Kingship and Statecraft in Chimor, edited by M. Moseley and A. Cordy-Collins, pp. 419–445. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Rostain, Stéphan 2006 Etnoarqueología de las casas Huapula y Jíbaro. Bulletin de l’Institut François d’Études Andines 35:337–346.Google Scholar
Schwarz, Frederick, and Scott Raymond, J. 1996 Formative Settlement Patterns in the Valdivia Valley, Southwest Coastal Ecuador. Journal of Field Archaeology 23(2):205–224.Google Scholar
Shackley, M. Steven, and Ogburn, Dennis 2008 Source Provenance of Obsidian Artifacts from Northern Peru. Berkeley Archaeological Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Staller, John E. 1994 Late Valdivia Occupation in Southern Coastal El Oro Province, Ecuador: Excavations at the Early Formative Period (3500–1500 B.C.) Site of La Emerencia. Unpublished Ph.D. diss., Department of Anthropology, Southern Methodist University.Google Scholar
Staller, John E. 2000 Political and Prehistoric Frontiers: How History Influences Our Understanding of the Past. In The Entangled Past: Integrating History and Archaeology, Proceedings of the 30th Annual Chacmool Archaeological Conference, edited by M. Boyd, J. Erwin, and M. Hendrickson, pp. 242–257. Calgary.Google Scholar
Staller, John E. 2001a The Jelí Phase Complex at La Emerenciana, a Late Valdivia Site in Southern El Oro Province, Ecuador. Andean Past 6: 117–174.Google Scholar
Staller, John E. 2001b Reassessing the Developmental and Chronological Relationships of the Formative of Coastal Ecuador. Journal of World Prehistory 15(2): 193–256.Google Scholar
Staller, John, and Thompson, Robert G. 2002 A Multidisciplinary Approach to Understanding the Initial Introduction of Maize into Coastal Ecuador. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:33–50.Google Scholar
Stothert, Karen 1988 La Prehistoria Temprana de la península de Santa Elena: Cultura Las Vegas. Miscelánea Antropológica Ecuatoriana 10. Museo del Banco Central del Ecuador, Guayaquil.Google Scholar
Stothert, Karen 2003 Expressions of Ideology in the Formative Period of Ecuador. In The Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J. Scott Raymond and Richard Burger, pp. 337–421. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Stothert, Karen, Piperno, Dolores, and Andres, T. C. 2003 Terminal Pleistocene/Early Holocene Human Adaptation in Coastal Ecuador: The Las Vegas Evidence. Quaternary International 109–110:23–43.Google Scholar
Temme, Matilde 1999 El Formativo de Putushío, sierra sur del Ecuador. In Formativo Sudamericano: Una Revaluación, edited by P. Ledergerber-Crespo, pp. 124–138. Ediciones Abya-Yala, Quito.Google Scholar
Tykot, Robert, and Staller, John E. 2002 The Importance of Early Maize Agriculture in Coastal Ecuador: New Data from La Emerenciana. Current Anthropology 43(4):666–677.Google Scholar
Ubelaker, Douglas 2003 Health Issues in the Early Formative of Ecuador: Skeletal Biology of Real Alto. In The Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J. Scott Raymond and Richard Burger, pp. 259–287. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Uhle, Max 1922 Influencias mayas en el Alto Ecuador. Tipografía y Encuadernación Salesianas, Quito.Google Scholar
Valdez, Francisco 2008 Inter-Zonal Relationships in Ecuador. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, pp. 865–888. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Valdez, Francisco, Guffroy, Jean, de Saulieu, Geoffrey, Hurtado, Julio, and Yepes, Alexandra 2005 Découverte d’un site cérémoniel formatif sur le versant oriental des Andes. Comptes-Rendus: Paléontologie humaine et préhistoire 4(1):369–374.Google Scholar
Vega-Centeno Sara-Lafosse, Rafael 2007 Construction, Labor Organization, and Feasting During the Late Archaic Period in the Central Andes. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 26:150–171.Google Scholar
Vilchez Carrasco, Carolina, Moore, Jerry D., and Pajuelo, Eva (editors) 2007 Informe Final: Proyecto Arqueológico Tumbes: Excavaciones en El Porvenir y Loma Saavedra, Departamento de Tumbes, Temporada 2006. Technical report, Institute Nacional de Cultura, Lima.Google Scholar
Villaba, Marcelo 1988 Cotocollao: Una Aldea Formativa del Valle de Quito. Serie Monográfica 2, Miscelánea Antropológica Ecuatoriana. Museo del Banco Central del Ecuador, Quito.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon, and Phillips, Phillip 1958 Method and Theory in American Archaeology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Zarrillo, Sonia, Pearsall, Deborah M., Scott Raymond, J., Tisdale, Mary Ann, and Quon, Dugane J. 2007 Directly Dated Starch Residues Document Early Formative Maize (Zea mays L.) in Tropical Ecuador. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105(3):5006–5011.Google Scholar
Zeidler, James 1984 Social Space in Valdivia Society: Community Patterning and Domestic Structure at Real Alto, 3000–2000 BC. Unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Zeidler, James 2000 Gender, Status and Community in Early Formative Valdivia Society. In The Archaeology of Communities: A New World Perspective, edited by Marcello Canuto and Jason Yaeger, pp. 161–181. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Zeidler, James 2003 Formative Period Chronology for the Coast and Western Lowlands of Ecuador. In The Archaeology of Formative Ecuador, edited by J. Scott Raymond and Richard Burger, pp. 487–527. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Zeidler, James 2008 The Ecuadorian Formative. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, pp. 459–488. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Zeidler, James, and Pearsall, Deborah (editors) 1994 Regional Archaeology in Northern Manabí, Ecuador, Vol. I: Environment, Cultural Chronology, and Prehistoric Subsistence in the Jama River Valley. University of Pittsburgh Memoirs in Latin American Archaeology, No. 8. Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Zevallos Mendoza, Carlos, and Holm, Olaf 1960 Excavaciones arqueológicas en San Pablo. Ciencia y Naturaleza 3(2–3):62–95.Google Scholar