Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T13:16:36.988Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Tiwanaku's Legacy: A Chronological Reassessment of the Terminal Middle Horizon in the Moquegua Valley, Peru

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 June 2019

Nicola Sharratt Open the ORCID record for Nicola Sharratt [Opens in a new window]
Nicola Sharratt*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Georgia State University, PO BOX 3998, Atlanta, GA 30302, USA ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

As in other examples of state collapse, political disintegration of the Tiwanaku state circa AD 1000 was accompanied by considerable cultural continuity. In the Moquegua Valley, Peru, the location of the largest Tiwanaku communities outside the altiplano, settlements and practices associated with this postcollapse cultural continuity are termed Tumilaca. Previous research indicated that Tumilaca was short-lived, with all vestiges of Tiwanaku gone from Moquegua's archaeological record by the thirteenth century when the valley was subsequently characterized by Estuquiña-style materials. This article discusses radiocarbon dates from Tumilaca la Chimba, a village established as the political authority of the Tiwanaku state waned. The 21 absolute dates from Tumilaca domestic, public, and funerary contexts span at least 350 years, from the late tenth to the mid-fourteenth centuries AD. They suggest that (1) Tiwanaku-affiliated communities endured well into the later Late Intermediate Period (AD 1200–1470); (2) ongoing debates about the emergence of Estuquiña communities must consider the role of terminal Tiwanaku populations; and (3) analyses of postcollapse continuity can be enhanced by considering peripheral locales and the particularities of continuity.

Como en otros ejemplos de colapso estatal, la desintegración política del estado Tiwanaku circa dC 1000 estuvo acompañada por una considerable continuidad cultural. En el Valle de Moquegua, Perú, donde se encuentran las comunidades más grandes fuera del altiplano, los asentamientos y las prácticas asociadas con una continuidad cultural post-colapso son cono-cidos como Tumilaca. Investigaciones previas indicaron que Tumilaca tuvo una corta duración, ya que todos los vestigios Tiwanaku, desaparecen del registro arqueológico de Moquegua antes del siglo trece. En este artículo se discuten los fechados radiocarbónicos del sito de Tumilaca la Chimba, una aldea establecida al tiempo que la autoridad política Tiwanaku mermaba. Los 21 fechados absolutos provenientes de contextos Tumilaca domésticos, públicos y funerarios, comprenden una historia de al menos 350 años, desde fines del siglo diez hasta mediados del siglo catorce. Estos fechados sugieren que: (1) las comunidades afiliadas a Tiwanaku estuvieron presentes hasta entrada la segunda mitad del período Intermedio tardío (dC 1200-1470); (2) los debates acerca del surgimiento de las comunidades nombradas Estuquiña deben considerar el rol de las poblaciones Tiwanaku terminal; (3) los estudios sobre la continuidad post-colapso se pueden enriquecer al considerar las localidades periféricas y las particularidades de la continuidad.

Keywords

TiwanakuAndesstate collapseradiocarbonTiwanakuAndescolapso estatalfechados radiocarbónicos
Type
Article
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 30 , Issue 3 , September 2019 , pp. 529 - 549
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 by the Society for American Archaeology 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Albarracin-Jordan, Juan 1996 Tiwanaku Settlement System: The Integration of Nested Hierarchies in the Lower Tiwanaku Valley. Latin American Antiquity 7:183–210.Google Scholar
Augustyniak, Szymon 2004 Dating the Tiwanaku State: Análisis Cronológico del Estado Tiwanaku. Chungara 36:19–35.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew 2001 Population and History in the Ancient Titicaca Basin. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Bawden, Garth 1989 The Tumilaca Site and Post-Tiahuanaco Occupational Stratigraphy in the Moquegua Drainage. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Rice, Don S., Stanish, Charles, and Scarr, Phillip R., pp. 287–302. BAR International Series 545(ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Bawden, Garth 1993 An Archaeological Study of Social Structure and Ethnic Replacement in Residential Architecture of the Tumilaca Valley. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Aldenderfer, Mark S., pp. 42–54. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Bermann, Marc, Goldstein, Paul S., Stanish, Charles, and Watanabe, Luis 1989 The Collapse of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Osmore Drainage. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Rice, Don S., Stanish, Charles, and Scarr, Phillip R., pp. 269–285. BAR International Series 545(ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Binford, Michael W., Kolata, Alan L., Brenner, Mark, Janusek, John W., Seddon, Matthew T., Abbott, Mark, and Curtis, Jason H. 1997 Climate Variation and the Rise and Fall of an Andean Civilization. Quaternary Research 47:235–248.Google Scholar
Blom, Deborah E. 1999 Tiwanaku Regional Interaction and Social Identity: A Bioarchaeological Approach. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, Christopher 2009 Bayesian Analysis of Radiocarbon Dates. Radiocarbon 51:337–360.Google Scholar
Burgi, Peter T. 1993 The Inka Empire's Expansion in the Coastal Sierra Region West of Lake Titicaca. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Burgi, Peter T., Williams, Sloan A., Buikstra, Jane E., Clark, Niki R., Cerna, Maria Cecilia Lozada, and Pino, Elva Torres 1989 Aspects of Mortuary Differentiation at the Site of Estuquina, Southern Peru. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Rice, Don S., Stanish, Charles, and Scarr, Phillip R., pp. 347–369. BAR International Series 545(ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Cassman, Vicki 1997 A Reconsideration of Prehistoric Ethnicity and Status in Northern Chile: The Textile Evidence. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe.Google Scholar
Chacaltana-Cortez, Sofia 2015 Regional Interfaces between Inca and Local Communities in the Colesuyo Region of Southern Peru. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Chicago.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 2004 Hermeneutics, Transitions, and Transformations in Classic to Postclassic Maya Society. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation, edited by Demarest, Arthur A., Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S., pp. 12–27. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Cohen, Robin 1997 Global Diasporas, an Introduction. University of Washington Press, Seattle.Google Scholar
Conlee, Christina A. 2003 Local Elites and the Reformation of Late Intermediate Sociopolitical and Economic Organization in Nasca, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 14:47–65.Google Scholar
Conlee, Christina A. 2006 Regeneration as Transformation: Postcollapse Society in Nasca, Peru. In After Collaspe: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Schwartz, Glenn M., and Nichols, John J., pp. 99–113. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon.Google Scholar
Conrad, Geoffrey W. 1993 Domestic Architecture of the Estuquina Phase: Estuquina and San Antonio. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Aldenderfer, Mark S., pp. 55–65. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Cooper, Lisa 2006 The Demise and Regeneration of Bronze Age Urban Centers in the Euphrates Valley of Syria. In After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Schwartz, Glenn M. and Nichols, John J., pp. 18–37. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Couture, Nicole C., and Sampeck, K. 2003 Putuni: A History of Palace Architecture in Tiwanaku. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2, edited by Kolata, Alan L., pp. 226–263. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Covey, R. Alan 2008 Multiregional Perspectives on the Archaeology of the Andes during the Late Intermediate Period (c. A.D. 1000–1400). Journal of Archaeological Research 16:287–338.Google Scholar
Demarest, Arthur A., Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S. 2004 The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation, edited by Demarest, Arthur A., Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S., pp. 545–572. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Dever, William G. 1989 The Collapse of the Urban Early Bronze Age in Palestine: Toward a Systemic Analysis. In L'urbanisation de la Palestine a l'age du Bronze ancien, edited by de Miroschedji, Pierre, pp. 225–246. BAR International Series 527(ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Faulseit, Ronald K. 2012 State Collapse and Household Resilience in the Oaxaca Valley of Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 23:401–425.Google Scholar
Faulseit, Ronald K. 2013 Cerro Danush: Excavations at a Hilltop Community in the Eastern Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. University of Michigan Museum, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Faulseit, Ronald K. (editor)2016 Beyond Collapse: Archaeological Perspectives on Resilience, Revitalization, and Transformation in Complex Societies. SIU Press, Carbondale, Illinois.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1985 Tiwanaku Ceramics of the Moquegua Valley, Peru. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1989a The Tiwanaku Occupation of Moquegua. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Rice, Don S., Stanish, Charles, and Scarr, Phillip R., pp. 219–255. BAR International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1989b Omo: A Tiwanaku Provincial Center in Moquegua, Peru. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1993a House, Community, and State in the Earliest Tiwanaku Colony: Domestic Patterns and State Integration at Omo M12, Moquegua. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Aldenderfer, Mark S., pp. 25–41. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 1993b Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moquegua, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 4:22–47.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 2005 Andean Diaspora: The Tiwanaku Colonies and the Origins of South American Empire. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S. 2013 Tiwanaku and Wari State Expansion: Demographic and Outpost Colonization Compared. In Visions of Tiwanaku, edited by Vranich, Alexei and Stanish, Charles, pp. 41–63. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul S., and Owen, Bruce 2001 Tiwanaku en Moquegua: las colonias altiplánicas. Boletín de Arqueologia PUCP 5:139–168.Google Scholar
Graffam, Gray 1992 Beyond State Collapse: Rural History, Raised Fields, and Pastoralism in the South Andes. American Anthropologist 94:882–904.Google Scholar
Hogg, Alan G., Hua, Quan, Blackwell, Paul G., Niu, Mu, Buck, Caitlin E., Guilderson, Thomas P., Heaton, Timothy J., Palmer, Jonathan G., Reimer, Paula J., Reimer, Ron W., Turney, Chris S. M., and Zimmerman, Susan R. H. 2013 SHCal13 Southern Hemisphere Calibration, 0–50,000 Years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55:1889–1903.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 2004 Identity and Power in the Ancient Andes. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 2005 Collapse as Cultural Revolution: Power and Identity in the Tiwanaku to Pacajes Transition. In Foundations of Power in the Prehispanic Andes, edited by Vaughn, Kevin J., Ogburn, Dennis, and Conlee, Christina A., pp. 175–210. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 2008 Ancient Tiwanaku. Case Studies in Early Societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Knudson, Kelly J., and Price, T. Douglas 2007 Utility of Multiple Chemical Techniques in Archaeological Residential Mobility Studies: Case Studies from Tiwanaku and Chiribaya Affiliated Sites in the Andes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 132:25–39.Google Scholar
Knudson, Kelly J., Douglas Price, T., Buikstra, Jane E., and Blom, Deborah E. 2004 The Use of Strontium Isotope Analysis to Investigate Tiwanaku Migration and Mortuary Ritual in Bolivia and Peru. Archaeometry 46:5–18.Google Scholar
Koons, Michele L., and Alex, A. Bridget 2014 Revised Moche Chronology Based on Bayesian Models of Reliable Radiocarbon Dates. Radiocarbon 56:1039–1055.Google Scholar
Korpisaari, Antti 2006 Death in the Bolivian High Plateau: Burials and Tiwanaku Society. BAR International Series 1536. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Korpisaari, Antti, Oinonen, Markku, and Chacama, Juan 2014 A Reevaluation of the Absolute Chronology of Cabuza and Related Ceramic Styles of the Azapa Valley, Northern Chile. Latin American Antiquity 25:409–426.Google Scholar
Levine, Abigail, and Stanish, Charles 2013 The Importance of Multiple 14C Dates from Significant Archaeological Contexts. Journal of Archaeological Method & Theory 21:824–836.Google Scholar
Lozada Cerna, Maria Cecilia 1987 La Cerámica del Componente Mortuorio de Estuquina, Móquegua. BA thesis, Facultad de Ciencias Histórico-Arqueológicas, Universidad Católica Santa Maria, Arequipa.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia, and Yoffee, Norman 2010 Questioning Collapse: Human Resilience, Ecological Vulnerability, and the Aftermath of Empire. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
McCormac, F. Gerry, Reimer, Paula J., Hogg, Alan G., Higham, Thomas F. G., Baillie, Michael G. L., Palmer, Jonathan G., and Stuiver, Minze 2002 Calibration of the Radiocarbon Time Scale for the Southern Hemisphere: AD 1850–1950. Radiocarbon 44:641–651.Google Scholar
Marsh, Erik J., Bruno, Maria C., Fritz, Sherilyn C., Baker, Paul, Capriles, Jose M., and Hastorf, Christine A. 2018 IntCal, SHCal, or a Mixed Curve? Choosing a 14C Calibration Curver for Archaeological and Paleoenvironmental Records from Tropical South America. Radiocarbon 60:1–16.Google Scholar
Moseley, Michael E. 2001 The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. 2nd ed. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Nash, Donna J. 2002 The Archaeology of Space: Places of Power in the Wari Empire. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainseville.Google Scholar
Ogburn, Dennis 2012 Reconceiving the Chronology of Inca Imperial Expansion. Radiocarbon 54:219–237.Google Scholar
Overholtzer, Lisa 2015 Agency, Practice, and Chronological Context: A Bayesian Approach to Household Chronologies. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 37:37–47.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce 1993 A Model of Multiethnicity: State Collapse, Competition, and Social Complexity from Tiwanaku to Chiribaya in the Osmore Valley, Peru. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce 1996 Inventario Arqueológico del Drenaje Superior del Río Osmore: Informe del Campo e Informe Final. Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce 1997 Informe de Excavaciones en los Sectores Mortuorios de Chen Chen; Parte del Proyecto Rescate de Chen Chen. Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce 2005 Distant Colonies and Explosive Collapse: The Two Stages of the Tiwanaku Diaspora in the Osmore Drainage. Latin American Antiquity 16:45–80.Google Scholar
Owen, Bruce, and Goldstein, Paul S. 2001 Tiwanaku en Moquegua: Interacciones Regionales y Colapso. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 5:169–188.Google Scholar
Pari Flores, Romulo Elias 1980 Excavación Arqueológica en la Necropolis de Tumilaka–Moquegua. BA thesis, Department of Archaeology, Universidad Catolica Santa Maria, Arequipa.Google Scholar
Parker, Bradley J., and Sharratt, Nicola 2017 Fragments of the Past: Applying Microarchaeological Techniques to Use Surfaces at Tumilaca La Chimba, Moquegua, Peru. Advances in Archaeological Practice 5:71–92.Google Scholar
Renfrew, Colin 1979 Systems Collapse as Social Transformation: Catastophe and Anastrophe in Early State Societies. In Transformations: Mathematical Approaches to Culture Change, edited by Renfrew, Colin and Cooke, Kenneth L., pp. 481–506. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S. 1989 Osmore Drainage, Peru: The Ecological Setting. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Rice, Don S., Stanish, Charles, and Scarr, Phillip R., pp. 17–34. BAR International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S. 1993 Latin American Horizons. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M., Demarest, Arthur A., and Rice, Don S. 2004 The Terminal Classic and the “Classic Maya Collapse” in Perspective. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation, edited by Demarest, Arthur A., Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S., pp. 1–11. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Rowe, John H. 1962 States and Periods in Archaeological Interpretation. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 18:40–54.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Glenn M., and Nichols, John J. 2006 After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Sharratt, Nicola 2011 Social Identities and State Collapse: A Diachronic Study of Tiwanaku Burials in the Moquegua Valley, Peru. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Chicago.Google Scholar
Sharratt, Nicola 2015 Viviendo y Muriendo en medio de la efervescencia política: excavaciones en una aldea Tiwanaku terminal (950–1150 D.C) del valle de Moquegua, Perú. In El Horizonte Medio en los Andes Centro Sur: Nuevos aportes sobre la arqueología del sur de Perú, norte de Chile y altiplano de Bolivia, edited by Korpisaari, Antti and Chacama R, Juan., pp. 201–223. IFEA, Lima.Google Scholar
Sharratt, Nicola 2016a Collapse and Cohesion: Building Community in the Aftermath of Tiwanaku State Breakdown. World Archaeology 48:144–163.Google Scholar
Sharratt, Nicola 2016b Crafting a Response to Collapse: Ceramic and Textile Production in the Wake of Tiwanaku State Breakdown. In Beyond Collapse: Archaeological Perspectives on Resilience, Revitalization, and Transformation in Complex Societies, edited by Faulseit, Ronald K., pp. 407–430. CAI Occasional Papers No. 42. SIU Press, Carbondale, Illinois.Google Scholar
Sharratt, Nicola, Golitko, Mark, and Williams, Patrick Ryan 2015 Pottery Production, Regional Exchange and State Collapse during the Middle Horizon (A.D. 500–1000): LA-ICP-MS Analyses of Tiwanaku Pottery in the Moquegua Valley, Perú. Journal of Field Archaeology 40:397–412.Google Scholar
Sharratt, Nicola, Golitko, Mark, Williams, Patrick Ryan, and Dussubieux, Laure 2009 Ceramic Production during the Middle Horizon; Wari and Tiwanaku Clay Procurement in the Moquegua Valley, Peru. Geoarchaeology 24:792–820.Google Scholar
Sharratt, Nicola, and Williams, Patrick Ryan 2008 Tiwanaku and Post-Tiwanaku: Shifting Perspectives from the Moquegua Valley. Paper presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Vancouver, Canada.Google Scholar
Sharratt, Nicola, Williams, Patrick Ryan, Cerna, Maria Cecilia Lozada, and Starbird, Jennifer 2012 Late Tiwanaku Mortuary Patterns in the Moquegua Drainage, Peru: Excavations at the Tumilaca la Chimba Cemetery. In Advances in Titicaca Basin Archaeology III, edited by Vranich, Alexei, Klarich, Elizabeth, and Stanish, Charles, pp. 193–203. Museum of Anthropology Publications, Ann Arbor, Michigan.Google Scholar
Sims, Kenny 2006 After State Collapse: How Tumilaca Communities Developed in the Upper Moquegua Valley, Peru. In After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Schwartz, Glenn M. and Nichols, John J., pp. 114–136. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 1989a An Archaeological Evaluation of an Ethnohistorical Model in Moquegua. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Rice, Don S., Stanish, Charles, and Scarr, Phillip R., pp. 303–320. BAR International Series 545(ii). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 1989b Household Archaeology: Testing Models of Zonal Complementarity in the South Central Andes. American Anthropologist 91:7–24.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 1991 A Late Pre-Hispanic Ceramic Chronology for the Upper Moquegua Valley, Peru. Fieldiana. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 1992 Ancient Andean Political Economy. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 2003 Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Sutter, Richard C., and Sharratt, Nicola 2010 Continuity and Transformation during the Terminal Middle Horizon (AD 950–1150): A Bioarchaeological Assessment of Tumilaca Origins within the Middle Moquegua Valley, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 21:67–86.Google Scholar
Tainter, Joseph 1988 The Collapse of Complex Societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Tainter, Joseph 2006 Archaeology of Overshoot and Collapse. Annual Review of Anthropology 35:59–74.Google Scholar
Vranich, Alexei 2006 The Construction and Reconstruction of Ritual Space at Tiwanaku, Bolivia (A.D. 500–1000). Journal of Field Archaeology 31:121–136.Google Scholar
Weiss, Harvey, and Bradley, Raymond S. 2001 What Drives Societal Collapse. Science 291:609–610.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R. 1991 Horizontal Integration and Regional Diversity: An Alternating Process in the Rise of Civilizations. American Antiquity 56:197–215.Google Scholar
Williams, Patrick Ryan 1997 The Role of Disaster in the Development of Agriculture and the Evolution of Social Complexity in the South-Central Andes. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Williams, Patrick Ryan 2002 Rethinking Disaster-Induced Collapse in the Demise of the Andean Highland States: Wari and Tiwanaku. World Archaeology 33:361–374.Google Scholar
Williams, Patrick Ryan 2013 Tiwanaku: A Cult of the Masses. In Visions of Tiwanaku, edited by Vranich, Alexei and Stanish, Charles, pp. 27–40. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Williams, Sloan A. 1990 The Skeletal Biology of Estuquina: A Late Intermediate Period Site in Southern Peru. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois.Google Scholar
Williams, Sloan A., Buikstra, Jane E., Clark, Niki R., Cerna, Maria Cecilia Lozada, and Pino, Elva Torres 1989 Mortuary Site Excavations and Skeletal Biology in the Osmore Project. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by Rice, Don S., Stanish, Charles, and Scarr, Phillip R., pp. 329–346. BAR International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Yoffee, Norman and Cowgill, George L. 1988 The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar