Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T15:54:34.692Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Language education policy and practice in East and Southeast Asia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 March 2017

Andy Kirkpatrick  and
Anthony J. Liddicoat
Andy Kirkpatrick
Affiliation:
Griffith University, Brisbane, [email protected]
Anthony J. Liddicoat
Affiliation:
Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick, [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

East and Southeast Asia represents a linguistically and culturally diverse region. For example, more than 700 languages are spoken in Indonesia alone. It is against this backdrop of diversity that the ten countries that comprise Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) have recently signed the ASEAN Charter which, while calling for respect for the region's languages, cultures and religions also officially nominates English as ASEAN's working language. In this article, we examine the language education policies of the region and consider the implications of these policies for the maintenance of linguistic and cultural diversity on the one hand and the promotion of English and the respective national languages on the other. As ASEAN is closely connected to the three major countries of China, Japan and South Korea, as indicated by the ‘ASEAN + 3’ forum, we also include these countries here. We stress that, as space forbids an in-depth treatment of the language education policies of each of the 13 countries, we have chosen to describe and discuss in some depth the policies of 5 countries (China, Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines and Vietnam), as these provide a cross-section of language policy contexts and approaches in the region. We add brief notes on the policies of the remaining countries.

Type
State-of-the-Art Article
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 50 , Issue 2 , April 2017 , pp. 155 - 188
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adamson, R. A & Feng, A. (2015). Trilingualism in education: Models and challenges. In Feng, A. & Adamson, R. A. (eds.), 243–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amano, I. (1990). Education and examination in modern Japan. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, C. E. & Uribe-Jongbloed, E. (2015). Minority languages in networks of overlapping, hierarchical communities in Colombia. In Heinrich, P. & Ostler, N. (eds.), Indigenous languages: Value to the community, Bath: Foundation for Endangered Languages, 132–137.Google Scholar
ASEAN (2013). Keynote address by H. E. Le Luong Minh, Secretary-General of ASEAN at the British Council Conference on ‘Educating the next generation of workforce: ASEAN perspectives on innovation, integration and English’. Bangkok, 24 June 2013.Google Scholar
ASEAN (2015). ASEAN economic community blueprint. Jakarta: The ASEAN Secretariat.Google Scholar
Bernard, J. (2003). Language policy and the promotion of national identity in Indonesia. In Brown, M. & Ganguly, S. (eds.), Fighting words: Language policy and ethnic relations in Asia. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 263–290.Google Scholar
Board of Education (1973). Green paper: Report of the Board of Education on the proposed expansion of secondary education in Hong Kong over the next decade. Hong Kong: Government Printer.Google Scholar
Board of Education (1974). White paper: Secondary education in Hong Kong over the next decade. Hong Kong: Government Printer.Google Scholar
Bolton, K. (2012). Language policy and planning in Hong Kong. In Wee-Ling, Low & Hashim, A. (eds.), English in Southeast Asia. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 221–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bray, M. & Koo, R. (2004). Language and education. In Bray, M. & Koo, R. (eds.), Education and society in Hong Kong and Macao: Comparative perspectives on continuity and change. Hong Kong: Kluwer Academic, 141–158.Google Scholar
Calvetti, P. (1992). Language education and standardization in the formation of the modern state: A comparison of Italy and Japan. Senri Ethnological Studies 39, 109–121.Google Scholar
Canangkan ‘dina Mabasa Bali’ tiap Jumat. (2016, 26 February). Bali Post, p. 3.Google Scholar
Candraningrum, D. (2008). The challenge of teaching English in Indonesia's Muhammadiyah universities (1958-2005): Mainstreaming gender through postcolonial Muslim Women Writers. Münster: Unipress.Google Scholar
Chapman, D. (2006). Discourses of multicultural coexistence (tabunka kyōsei) and the ‘oldcomer’ Korean residents of Japan. Asian Ethnicity 7.1, 89–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, H. (2010). Teaching and learning in Pakistan: The role of language in education . Islamabad: The British Council.Google Scholar
Coleman, H. (2011a). Developing countries and the English language. In Coleman, H. (ed.), Dreams and realities: Developing countries and the English language. London: The British Council, 1–14.Google Scholar
Coleman, H. (2011b). Allocating resources for English: The case of Indonesia's English medium International Standard Schools London: British Council.Google Scholar
Council for the Promotion of Measures for Foreign Residents of Japanese Descent (2011). 日系定住外国人施策に関する行動計画. [Action plan on measures for foreign residents of Japanese descent]. Retrieved 19 February 2012, from www8.cao.go.jp/teiju/guideline/pdf/fulltext-koudo.pdf.Google Scholar
Coyle, D., Hood, P. & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content and language integrated learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dardjowidjojo, S. (1998). Strategies for a successful national language policy: The Indonesian case. International Journal of The Sociology of Language 130, 35–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dardjowidjojo, S. (2000). English teaching in Indonesia. The English Australia Journal 18.1, 2–30.Google Scholar
Darmojuwono, S. (2010). Deutsch in Indonesien. In Krumm, H.-J., Fandrych, C., Hufeisen, B. & Riemer, C. (eds.), Deutsch als fremd- und zweitsprache. Ein internationales handbuch. Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1686–1689.Google Scholar
De Francis, J. (1977). Colonialism and language policy in Vietnam. The Hague: Mouton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dekker, D. & Young, C. (2005). Bridging the gap: The development of appropriate educational strategies for minority language communities in the Philippines. Current Issues in Language Planning 6.2, 182–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denham, P. A. (1992). English in Vietnam. World Englishes 11.1, 61–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Departemen Pendidikan Nasional (2006). Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional No. 23 Tahun 2006 Tentang Standar Kompetensi Lulusan Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. Retrieved 4 February 2015, from Departemen Pendidikan Nasional from https://bsnp-indonesia.org/id/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/Permen_23_2006.pdf.Google Scholar
Ding, Picus Sizhi (2015). Value of Prinmi: Knowledge of traditional culture in a threatened language. In Indigenous languages: Value to the community. Bath: Foundation for Endangered Languages, 21–26.Google Scholar
Draper, J. (2013). The status of Thailand's implementation of international treaty obligations regarding linguistic human rights in education. Current Issues in Language Planning 14.2, 317–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dudzik, D. & Nguyen, Q. T. N. (2015). Vietnam: Building English competency in preparation for ASEAN 2015. In Stoupe, R. & Kimura, K. (eds.), ASEAN integration and the role of English language teaching. Phnom Penh: IDP, 31–40.Google Scholar
Feng, A. & Adamson, R. A.. (2015). Researching trilingualism and trilingual education in China. In Feng, A. & Adamson, R. A. (eds.), Trilingualism and trilingual education in China. Dordrecht: Springer, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, S. K. (2007). Shift in language policy in Malaysia. In Carli, A. & Ammon, U. (eds.), Linguistic inequality in scientific communication today. The AILA Review, vol. 20. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 106–122.Google Scholar
Gill, S. K. (2012). The complexities of re-reversal of language-in-education policy in Malaysia. In Kirkpatrick, A. & Sussex, R. (eds.), English as an international language in Asia: Implications for language education. Dordrecht: Springer, 45–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glasgow, G. (2014). Teaching English in English ‘in principle’: The national foreign language curriculum for Japanese senior high schools. International Journal of Pedagogy and Learning 9.2, 152–161.Google Scholar
Goh, Y. S. (2009). Bilingual education policy in Singapore: Challenges and opportunities. In Ward, C. (ed.), Language teaching in a multilingual world. Singapore: Regional Language Centre (RELC), 171–190.Google Scholar
Gonzalez, A. B. (1996). Evaluating bilingual education in the Philippines: Towards a multidimensional model of education in language planning. In Bautista Ma, L. (ed.), Readings in Philippine sociolinguistics. Manila: De la Salle University Press, 327–340.Google Scholar
Government Secretariat (1981). Overall review of the Hong Kong education system. Hong Kong: Government Printer.Google Scholar
Government of Vietnam (2008). Quyết định số 1400/QĐ-TTg của Thủ tướng chính phủ: Về việc phê duyệt đề án ‘Dạy và học ngoại ngữ trong hệ thống giáo dục quốc dân giai đoạn 2008–2020’ [Resolution number 1400/QĐ-TTg by the Prime Minister: On the approval of the project ‘Teaching and learning foreign languages in the national education system for the period 2008–2020’]. from https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/chinhphu/hethongvanban?_page=5&class_id=1&document_id=78437&mode=detail&org_group_id=0&org_id=0&type_group_id=0&type_id=0.Google Scholar
Groeneboer, K. (1998). Westerse koloniale taalpolitiek in Azië: Het Nederlands, Portugees, Spaans, Engels en Frans in vergelijkend perspectief. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen.Google Scholar
Hadisantosa, N. (2010). Insights from Indonesia. In Johnstone, R. (ed.), Learning through English: Policies, challenges and prospects. London: British Council, 24–46.Google Scholar
Haryanto, E. (2012). Listening to students’ voice: A survey of implementation of English as a medium of instruction in an international standard school in Indonesia. Journal of Education and Practice 3.15, 111–119.Google Scholar
Hashimoto, K. (2000). ‘Internationalization’ is ‘Japanisation’: Japan's foreign language education and national identity. Journal of Intercultural Studies 21.1, 39–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hashimoto, K. (2011). Compulsory ‘foreign language activities’ in Japanese primary schools. Current Issues in Language Planning 12.2, 167–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hashimoto, K. (2013). English-only, but not a medium-of-instruction policy: The Japanese way of internationalising education for both domestic and overseas students. Current Issues in Language Planning 14.1, 16–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawanti, S. (2013). When teachers of English speak up about their beliefs of ELT in Indonesian primary schools. Paper presented at the 5th COTELF, Purworkerto: 11–12 May.Google Scholar
Hawanti, S. (2015). Implementing Indonesia's English language teaching policy in primary schools: The role of teachers’ knowledge and beliefs. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning 9.2, 162–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinrich, P. (2012). The making of monolingual Japan: Language ideology and Japanese modernity. Bristol: Mulilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hong Kong Education Department (1989). Report of the working group set up to review language improvement measures. Hong Kong: Government Printer.Google Scholar
Jeon, J., Lee, J. S. & Lee, H.-K. (2015). Participants’ perceptions on a multi-goal oriented English language education policy: A case of teach and learn in Korea program. Journal of Asia TEFL 12.1, 19–51.Google Scholar
Jones, G. M. (2007). Twenty years of bilingual education: Then and now. In Prescott, D. (ed.), Southeast Asia: Varieties, literacies and literatures. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 246–258.Google Scholar
Kakuharu, T. (2007). 大学における第２外国語の中国語教育の位置づけ. [The position of Chinese as the second foreign language in university]. 広島修大論集 人文編 Hiroshima Shudo University Bulletin 48, 165–179.Google Scholar
Kan, V., Lai, K. C., Kirkpatrick, A. & Law, A. (2011). Fine-tuning Hong Kong's medium of instruction policy. Hong Kong: Strategic Planning Office & Research Centre into Language Education and Acquisition in Multilingual Societies, The Hong Kong Institute of Education.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as a lingua franca in ASEAN: A multilingual model. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, A. (2012). English in ASEAN: Implications for regional multilingualism. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33.4, 331–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, A. (2014a). The language(s) of HE: EMI and/or ELF and/or multilingualism? Asian Journal of Applied Linguistics 1.1, 4–15.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, A. (2014b). English in Southeast Asia: Pedagogical and policy predictions. World Englishes 33.4, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, A. & Xu, Z. (2001). The new language law of the People's Republic of China. Australian Language Matters 9.2, 14–18.Google Scholar
Kitao, K. & Kitao, K. S. (1995). English teaching: Theory, research, practice. Tokyo: Eichosha.Google Scholar
Koishi, A. (2011). Comment dépasser le « monolinguisme » au Japon? Réflexion du point de vue de la politique linguistique éducative. Revue japonaise de didactique du français 6.1, 73–83.Google Scholar
Kojima, A. (2013). 教育機関としてのブラジル人学校 [Brazilian schools as educational institutions). 教育と社会研究 [Research on Education and Society] 23, 93–101.Google Scholar
Kosonen, K. (2006). Multigrade teaching among ethnic minority children: The language issue. In Cornish, L. (ed.), Reaching EFA through multigrade teaching: Issues, contexts and practices. Armidale, NSW: Kardoorair Press, 239–258.Google Scholar
Kosonen, K. (2013). The use on non-dominant languages in education in Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam. In Benson, C. & Kosonen, K. (eds.), Language issues in comparative education. Rotterdam: Sense, 39–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosonen, K. (2016). MLE policy developments in Cambodia. Paper presented at the International Conference on Language Policy in Multicultural and Multilingual Settings, Mandalay, 8–11 February.Google Scholar
Kubota, R. (2002). The impact of globalization on language teaching in Japan. In Block, D. & Cameron, D. (eds.), Globalization and language teaching. London: Routledge, 13–28.Google Scholar
Le, V. C. (2007). A historical review of English language education in Vietnam. In Spolsky, B. & Choi, Y. H. (eds.), English education in Asia: History and policy. Seoul: Asia TEFL, 168–180.Google Scholar
Le, V. C. & Do, T. M. C. (2012). Teacher preparation for primary school English education: The case of Vietnam. In Spolsky, B. & Moon, J. (eds.), Primary school English-language education in Asia: From policy to practice. New York: Routledge, 106–122.Google Scholar
Lewis, P. M. (2009). Ethnologue languages of the world (www.ethnologue.com/country/ID).Google Scholar
Li, D. C. S. (2013). Linguistic hegemony or linguistic capital? In Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D. & Sierra, J. (eds.), English medium of instruction at global universities: Global challenges. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 65–83.Google Scholar
Wei, Li & Hua, Zhu (2010). Voices from the diaspora: Changing hierarchies and dynamics in Chinese multilingualism. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 205, 155–171.Google Scholar
Liddicoat, A. J. (2007a). Discourses of the self and other: Nihonjinron and the intercultural in Japanese language-in-education policy. Journal of Multicultural Discourses 2.1., 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liddicoat, A. J. (2007b). The ideology of interculturality in Japanese language-in-education policy. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics 30.2, 20.1–20.16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liddicoat, A. J. (2013). Language-in-education policies: The discursive construction of intercultural relations. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liddicoat, A. J. & Heugh, K. (2014). Educational equity for linguistically marginalised students. In Bigelow, M. & Ennser-Kananen, J. (eds.), The Routledge handbook of educational linguistics. New York & London: Routledge, 79–91.Google Scholar
Luke, K. K. & Richards, J. C. (1982). English in Hong Kong: Functions and status. English World-Wide 3.1, 47–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malarney, S. K. (2012). Literacy for the masses: The conduct and consequences of the literacy campaign in Revolutionary Vietnam. In Maher, J. C., Dobovsek-Sethna, J. & Duval, C. (eds.), Literacy for dialogue in multilingual societies: 多言語会社における対和のためのリテラシー: Proceedings of Linguapax Asia Symposium 2011. Tokyo: Linguapax, 83–91.Google Scholar
Martin, I. P. (2005). Conflicts and complications in Philippine education: Implications for ELT. In Dayag, D. & Quakenbush, J. S. (eds.), Linguistics and language education in the Philippines and beyond: A festschrift for Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista, Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 267–279.Google Scholar
Martin, I. P. & Abdullah, K. (2002). English language teaching in Brunei Darussalam: Continuity and change. Asia Pacific Journal of Education 22.2, 23–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, S. (2012). Language and minority rights: Ethnicity, nationalism and the politics of language (2nd edn.). New York & Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
McKinley, J. (2015). EMI in a Japanese Global 30 University. Paper presented at the Language Education and Diversity Conference, Auckland, 23–26 November.Google Scholar
Metila, R. & Padrilla, L. (2016). Patterns in challenges and strategies across contexts. Paper presented at the International Conference on Language Policy in Multicultural and Multilingual Settings, Mandalay, 8–11 February.Google Scholar
MEXT (2008). 小学校学習指導要領解説: 外国語活動編 [Explanation of the Elementary School Course of Study: Foreign Language Activities Book]. Retrieved 14 July 2011 from http://www.fuku-c.ed.jp/center/contents/kaisetsu/gaikokugo.pdf.Google Scholar
MEXT (2010). 高等学校学習指導要領解説: 外国語編 英語編. [The course of study for senior high schools guidelines: Foreign languages/English]. Retrieved from www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2010/01/29/1282000_9.pdf.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education and Training (2014). Thông tư số 01/2014/TT-BGDĐT ngày 24/1/2014 Ban hành khung năng lực ngoại ngữ 6 bậc dùng cho Việt Nam [Circular number 01/2014/TT-BGDĐT dated 24/1/2014 on the enactment of the 6-level framework for foreign languages in Vietnam]. Retrieved from http://www.bentre.edu.vn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3293:thong-t-012014tt-bgdt-ngay-24012014-ban-hanh-khung-nng-lc-ngoi-ng-6-bc-dung-cho-vit-nam&catid=243:ni-dung-va-mc-chi-trin-khai-an-ngoi-ng&Itemid=73.Google Scholar
Mistar, J. (2005). Teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) in Indonesia. In Braine, G. (ed.), Teaching English to the world: History, curriculum, and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 71–80.Google Scholar
Monbusho (2002). 学習指導要領、外国語. [The course of study for lower secondary school: Foreign languages]. Retrieved 12 August 2004, from www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shuppan/sonota/990301/03122602/010.htm.Google Scholar
Mori, H. (1997). Immigration policy and foreign workers in Japan. Houndsmill: MacMilllan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Musha Doer, N. (2008). On the necessity of ‘being understood’: Rethinking the ideology of standardisation in Japan. In Sato, S. & Doerr, N. Musha (eds.), Rethinking language and culture in Japanese education: Beyond the standard. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 63–81.Google Scholar
Nababan, P. W. J. (1991). Language in education: The case of Indonesia. International Review of Education 37.1, 115–131. doi: 10.1007/BF00598171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nguyen, H. T. M. (2011). Primary English language education policy in Vietnam: Insights from implementation. Current Issues in Language Planning 12.2, 225–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nguyen, L. (2014). Integrating culture and language in a Vietnamese setting: From language education policy to classroom teaching practice. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning 9.2, 171–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nguyen, L. & Kendall, H. H. (1981). After Saigon fell: Daily life under the Vietnamese communists. Berkeley CA: Institute of East Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Nguyen, N. (2012). How English has displaced Russian and other foreign languages in Vietnam since ‘doi moi’. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.23, 259–266.Google Scholar
Nolasco, R. (2008). The prospects of multilingual education and literacy in the Philippines. Manila: Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino.Google Scholar
Okada, A. (2007). 大学における語学教育に関する学生の意識とその分析: スペイン語の場合. [A study of students’ awareness of language education in universities: The case of Spanish]. メディア・コミュニケーション研究 [Media and Communication Studies] 53, 69–83.Google Scholar
Ostler, N. (2010). The last lingua franca. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Ota, H. (2011). 大学国際化の動向及び日本の現状と課題:東アジアとの比較から [University internationalization trends and Japanʼs challenges and prospects: An East Asian comparative study]. メディア教育研究 [Journal of Multimedia Education Research] 8.1, 1–12.Google Scholar
Pennycook, A. (2000). English, politics, ideology: From colonial celebration to post-colonial performativity. In Ricento, T. (ed.), Ideology, politics and language: A focus on English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 107–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pine, N. & Yu, Z. (2012). Early childhood literacy in China: A historical overview. In C. B. Leung & J. Ruan (eds.), Perspectives on teaching and learning Chinese literacy in China. Dordrecht: Springer, 81–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poon, A. Y. K. (2000). Implementing the medium of instruction policy in Hong Kong schools. In Li, D., Tsang, W. K. & Lin, A. (eds.), Language and education in postcolonial Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Linguistic Society of Hong Kong, 148–178.Google Scholar
Poon, A. Y. K. (2010). Language use, and language policy and planning in Hong Kong. Current Issues in Language Planning 11.1, 1–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poon, A. Y. K., Lau, C. M. Y. & Chu, D. H. W. (2013). Impact of the fine-tuning medium-of-instruction policy on learning: Some preliminary findings. Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal 4.1, 946–954.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramsey, R. S. (1989). The languages of China. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Republic of the Philippines (2013) An act enhancing the Philippine basic education system by strengthening its curriculum and increasing the number of years for basic education, appropriating funds therefor and for other purposes. Retrieved from www.gov.ph/2013/05/15/republic-act-no-10533/.Google Scholar
Romaine, S. (2015). The global extinction of languages and its consequences for cultural diversity, In Marten, H., Riessler, M., Saarikivi, J. & Toivanen, R. (eds.), Cultural and linguistic minorities in the Russian Federation and the European Union. Springer: Dordrecht, 31–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadtono, E. (2007). A concise history of TEFL in Indonesia. In Choi, Y. H. & Spolsky, B. (eds.), English education in Asia: History and policies. Busan: ASIA TEFL, 205–234.Google Scholar
Sikki, E. A. A., Rahman, A., Hamra, A. & Noni, N. (2013). The competence of primary school English teachers in Indonesia. Journal of Education and Practice 4.11, 139–145.Google Scholar
Singapore Department of Statistics (2010). Press release: Census of population 2010. www.singstat.gov.sg.Google Scholar
So, D. W. C. (1996). Hong Kong language policy. In Dickson, P. & Cumming, A. (eds.), Profiles of language education in 25 countries: Overview of phase 1 of the IEA language education study. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research, 41–46.Google Scholar
Sugitani, M. (2010). Deutsch in Japan. In Krumm, H.-J., Fandrych, C., Hufeisen, B. & Riemer, C. (eds.), Deutsch als fremd- und zweitsprache. Ein internationales handbuch. Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1698–1702.Google Scholar
Sunendar, D. (2006). État du français en Indonésie: Une langue à côté d'une ambiance anglophone. Revue japonaise de didactique du français 1.2, 112–116.Google Scholar
Sweeting, A. (1991). The medium of instruction in Hong Kong schools. In Crawford, N. & Hui, E. K. P. (eds.), The curriculum and behavior problems in schools: A response to Education Commission Report No. 4. In Education Paper No. 11. Hong Kong: Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, 67–78.Google Scholar
Thinh, D. H. (2006). The role of English in Vietnam's foreign language policy: A brief history. Paper presented at the 19th Annual EA Education Conference. Perth, WA, 14–16 September.Google Scholar
Thomas, A. (2002). Bilingual community-based education in the Cambodian highlands: A successful approach to enabling access to education by indigenous peoples. Journal of Southeast Asian Education 3.1, 26–55.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. T. (2003). Filipino English and Taglish: Language switching from multiple perspectives. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thuy Anh, N. H., (2007). Pilot intensive program in Ho Chi minh City: A program that meets the needs of society. In Grassick, L. (ed.), Primary innovations regional seminar: A collection of papers. Hanoi: British Council Vietnam, 113–116.Google Scholar
Tochon, F. V. (2015). Preface: From the language of economic power and prestige to languages for the planet. In Tochon, F. V. (ed.), Language education policy unlimited. Blue Mounds, WI: Deep University Press, 9–21.Google Scholar
Toyama, A. (2002). 「英語が使える日本人」の育成のための行動計画の策定について [Regarding the establishment of an action plan to cultivate ‘Japanese with English Abilities’]. Retrieved 12 August 2004, from www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/15/03/030318a.htm.Google Scholar
Tung, C. H. (1999). The 1999 policy address: Quality people, quality home: Positioning Hong Kong for the 21st century. Hong Kong: Printing Department, Hong Kong.Google Scholar
UNESCO (2007). Education for all by 2015. Will we make it? Oxford: Oxford University Press (http://unescdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001547/15473e.pdf).Google Scholar
Walter, S. & Dekker, D. (2008). The Lubuagan mother tongue education experiment (FLC). A report of comparative test results. Manila: Summer Institute of Linguistics International.Google Scholar
Wang, G. (2007). Keynote Address . In Lee, H. G. & Suryadinata, L. (eds.), Language nation and development. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, ix–xvii.Google Scholar
Wang, L. & Kirkpatrick, A. (2013). Trilingual education in Hong Kong primary schools: A case study. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 16.1, 100–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wen, Qiufang (2012). Teaching English as an International Language in Asia. In Kirkpatrick, A. & Sussex, R. (eds), English as an international language in Asia: Implications for language education. Dordrecht: Springer, 79–96.Google Scholar
Woodside, A. & Elman, B. A. (1994). Afterword: The expansion of education in Ch’ing China. In Elman, B. A. & Woodside, A. (eds.), Education and society in late imperial China: 1600–1900. Berkeley: University of California Press, 525–560.Google Scholar
Yen, S. (2015). Me and my language. The Irrawaddy. February: 34–38.Google Scholar
Yoshihari, M. & Carpenter, J. W. (2015). Introduction. In Mizamura, M. (ed.), The fall of language in the age of English. New York: Columbia University Press, 1–7.Google Scholar