Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T16:05:20.796Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Assessing young learners’ foreign language abilities

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2020

Marianne Nikolov  and
Veronika Timpe-Laughlin
Marianne Nikolov*
Affiliation:
University of Pécs, Hungary
Veronika Timpe-Laughlin
Affiliation:
Educational Testing Service, Princeton, USA
*
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Given the exponential growth in the popularity of early foreign language programs, coupled with an emphasis of evidence-based instruction, assessing young learners’ (YLs) foreign language abilities has moved to center stage. This article canvasses how the field of assessing young learners of foreign languages has evolved over the past two decades. The review offers insights into how and why the field has developed, how constructs have been defined and operationalized, what language proficiency frameworks have been used, why children were assessed, what aspects of their foreign language proficiency have been assessed, who was involved in the assessment, and how the results have been used. By surveying trends in foreign language (FL) and content-based language learning programs involving children between the ages of 3 and 14, the article highlights research into assessment of and for learning, and critically discusses areas such as large-scale assessments and proficiency examinations, comparative and experimental studies, the impact of assessment, teachers’ beliefs and assessment practices, young learners’ test-taking strategies, age-appropriate tasks, alternative and technology-mediated assessment, as well as game-based assessments. The final section of the article highlights where more research is needed, thus outlining potential future directions for the field.

Type
State-of-the-Art Article
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 54 , Issue 1 , January 2021 , pp. 1 - 37
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agustín Llach, M. P. (2015). The effects of the CLIL approach in young foreign language learners’ lexical profiles. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 20(5), 557–573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agustín Llach, M. P. (2016). Vocabulary growth in young CLIL and traditional EFL learners: Evidence from research and implications for education. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 26(2), 211–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albaladejo Albaladejo, S., Coyle, Y., & de Larios, J. R. (2018). Songs, stories and vocabulary acquisition in preschool learners of English as a foreign language. System, 76, 116–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alderson, J. C. (2005). Diagnosing foreign language proficiency: The interface between learning and assessment. London, UK: Continuum.Google Scholar
Alexiou, T. (2009). Young learners’ cognitive skills and their role in foreign language vocabulary learning. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes and outcomes (pp. 46–61).Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anthony, L., & Nation, I. S. P. (2017). Picture Vocabulary Size Test (Version 1.2.0) [Computer software and measurement instrument]. Tokyo, Japan: Waseda University.Google Scholar
Bacsa, É, & Csíkos, C. (2016). The role of individual differences in the development of listening comprehension in the early stages of language learning. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 263–289). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, A. L. (2005). Cambridge young learners English (YLE) tests. Language Testing, 22(2), 242–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, A. L. (2017). Theoretical and developmental issues to consider in the assessment of young learners’ English language proficiency. In Wolf, M. K. & Butler, Y. G. (Eds.), English language proficiency assessments for young learners (pp. 25–40). New York, NY: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, P. A., & Papageorgiou, S. (2014). Mapping the TOEFL® Primary™ Test onto the Common European Framework of Reference (TOEFL Research Memorandum ETS RM 14-05). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Benigno, V., & de Jong, J. (2016). A CEFR-based inventory of YL descriptors: Principles and challenges. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 43–64). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, D. (2003). Test for Reception of Grammar – Version 2 (TROG-2). London, UK: Pearson Assessment.Google Scholar
Black, P. J., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education, 5, 7–73.Google Scholar
Brumen, M., Cagran, B., & Rixon, S. (2009). Comparative assessment of young learners’ foreign language competence in three Eastern European countries. Educational Studies, 35(3), 269–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2009). How do teachers observe and evaluate elementary school students’ foreign language performance? A case study from South Korea. TESOL Quarterly, 43(3), 417–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2016). Self-assessment of and for young learners’ foreign language learning. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 291–315). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G., & Le, V.-N. (2018). A longitudinal investigation of parental social-economic status (SES) and young students’ learning of English as a foreign language. System, 73, 4–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G., & Lee, J. (2006). On-task vs. off-task self-assessments among Korean elementary school students studying English. The Modern Language Journal, 90(4), 506–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G., & Lee, J. (2010). The effects of self-assessment among young learners of English. Language Testing, 27(1), 5–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G., Sayer, P., & Huang, B. (2018). Introduction: Social class/socioeconomic status and young learners of English as a global language. System, 73, 1–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G., & Zeng, W. (2011). The roles that teachers play in paired-assessments for young learners. In Tsagari, D. & Csépes, I. (Eds.), Classroom-based language assessment (pp. 77–92). Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Cameron, L. (2003). Challenges for ELT from the expansion in teaching children. ELT Journal, 57(2), 105–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carless, D., & Lam, R. (2014). The examined life: Perspectives of lower primary school students in Hong Kong. Education, 42(3), 313–329.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. (2003). The effect of age on foreign language acquisition in formal contexts. In García Mayo, M. P. & García Lecumberri, M. L. (Eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (pp. 77–93). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J., Genesee, F., & Gorter, D. (2014). Critical Analysis of CLIL: Taking Stock and Looking Forward. Applied Linguistics, 35(3), 243–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapelle, C. A. (2008). The TOEFL validity argument. In Chapelle, C., Enright, M., & Jamieson, J. (Eds.), Building a validity argument for the Test of English as a Foreign Language (pp. 319–352). London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Chik, A., & Besser, S. (2011). International language test taking among young learners: A Hong Kong case study. Language Assessment Quarterly, 8(1), 73–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cho, Y., & Blood, I. (in progress). An analysis of TOEFL® Primary™ Repeaters: How much score change occurs? Language Testing.Google Scholar
Cho, Y., Ginsburgh, M., Morgan, R., Moulder, B., Xi, X., & Hauck, M. C. (2016). Designing the TOEFL® Primary™ Tests. (Research Memorandum No. RM-16-02). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Cho, Y., & So, Y. (2014). Construct-irrelevant factors influencing young EFL learners’ perceptions of test task difficulty (TOEFL Research Memorandum ETS RM 14-04). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Courtney, L., & Graham, S. (2019). ‘It's like having a test but in a fun way’: Young learners’ perceptions of a digital game-based assessment of early language learning. Language Teaching for Young Learners, 1(2), 161–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coyle, Y., & Gómez Gracia, G. (2014). Using songs to enhance L2 vocabulary acquisition in preschool children. ELT Journal, 68(3), 276–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Csapó, B., & Nikolov, M. (2009). The cognitive contribution to the development of proficiency in a foreign language. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 203–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtain, H. (2009). Assessment of early learning of foreign languages in the USA. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), The age factor and early language learning (pp. 60–82). Berlin, Germany/New York, NY: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Davis, G. M., & Fan, W. (2016). English vocabulary acquisition through songs in Chinese kindergarten students. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 59–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davison, C. (2013). Innovation in assessment: Common misconceptions. In Hyland, K. & Wong, L. L. C. (Eds.), Innovation and change in English language education (pp. 263–267). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
de Diezmas, E. N. M. (2016). The impact of CLIL on the acquisition of L2 competences and skills in primary education. International Journal of English Studies, 16(2), 81–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Wilde, V., & Eyckmans, J. (2017). Game on! Young learners’ incidental language learning prior to instruction. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7(4), 673–694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edelenbos, P., Johnstone, R. & Kubanek, A. (2006). The main pedagogical principles underlying the teaching of languages to very young learners. Languages for the children of Europe: Published research, good practice and main principles. European Commission Report. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/doc/youngsum_en.pdf.Google Scholar
Edelenbos, P., & Kubanek-German, A. (2004). Teacher assessment: The concept of ‘diagnostic competence’. Language Testing, 21(3), 259–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edelenbos, P., & Vinjé, M. P. (2000). The assessment of a foreign language at the end of primary (elementary) education. Language Testing, 17(2), 144–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice. (2017). Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe – 2017 ed. Eurydice Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.Google Scholar
Fenyvesi, K., Hansen, M., & Cadierno, T. (2018). The role of individual differences in younger vs. older primary school Danish learners of English. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. doi:10.1515/iral-2017-0053Google Scholar
Fernandez-Sanjurjo, J., Arias Blanco, J. M., & Fernandez-Costales, A. (2018). Assessing the influence of socio-economic status on students’ performance in Content and Language Integrated Learning. System, 73(1), 16–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández-Sanjurjo, J., Fernández-Costales, A., & Arias Blanco, J. M. (2017). Analysing students’ content-learning in science in CLIL vs. non-CLIL programmes: Empirical evidence from Spain. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(6), 661–674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulcher, G. (2012). Assessment literacy for the language classroom. Language Assessment Quarterly, 9(2), 113–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García Lecumberri, M. L., & Gallardo del Puerto, F. (2003). English FL sounds in school learners of different ages. In García Mayo, M. P. & García Lecumberri, M. L. (Eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (pp. 115–135). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García Mayo, M. D. P., & García Lecumberri, M. L. (2003). Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García Mayo, M. P. (2003). Age, length of exposure and grammaticality judgements in the acquisition of English as a foreign language. In García Mayo, M. P. & García Lecumberri, M. L. (Eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (pp. 94–114). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gattullo, F. (2000). Formative assessment in ELT primary (elementary) classrooms: An Italian case study. Language Testing, 17(2), 278–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Getman, E., Cho, Y., & Luce, C. (2016). Effects of printed option sets on listening item performance among young English-as-a-foreign-language learners. (Research Memorandum No. RM-16-16). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Griva, E., & Sivropoulou, R. (2009). Implementation and evaluation of an early foreign language learning project in kindergarten. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(1), 79–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gu, L., & So, Y. (2017). Strategies used by young English learners in an assessment context. In Wolf, M. K. & Butler, Y. G. (Eds.), English language proficiency assessments for young learners (pp. 119–135). London, UK/New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Haenni Hoti, A., Heinzmann, S., & Müller, M. (2009). ‘I can you help?’ Assessing speaking skills and interaction strategies of young learners. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), The age factor and early language learning (pp. 119–140). Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Haskins, R. (2018). Evidence-based policy: The movement, the goals, the issues, the promise. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 678(1), 8–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hasselgreen, A. (2000). The assessment of the English ability of young learners in Norwegian schools: An innovative approach. Language Testing, 17(2), 261–277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hasselgreen, A. (2003). Bergen ‘Can Do’ project. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe. Retrieved from http://www.ecml.at/documents/pub221E2003_Hasselgreen.pdfGoogle Scholar
Hasselgreen, A. (2005). Assessing the language of young learners. Language Testing, 22(3), 337–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hasselgreen, A., & Caudwell, G. (2016). Assessing the language of young learners. Sheffield/Bristol, UK: Equinox.Google Scholar
Hild, G. (2017). A case study of a Hungarian EFL teacher's assessment practices with her young learners. Studies in Second Language Teaching and Learning, 7(4), 695–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsieh, C. (2016). Examining content representativeness of a young learner language assessment: EFL teachers’ perspectives. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 93–107). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hsieh, C., Ionescu, M., & Ho, T. (2017). Out of many, one: Challenges in teaching multilingual Kenyan primary students in English. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 31(2), 199–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hung, Y. (2018). Group peer assessment of oral English performance in a Taiwanese elementary school. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 59, 19–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hung, Y., Samuelson, B., & Chen, C. (2016). Relationship between peer- and self-assessment and teacher assessment of young EFL learners’ oral presentations. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 317–338). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inbar-Lourie, O., & Shohamy, E. (2009). Assessing young language learners: What is the construct? In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), The age factor and early language learning (pp. 83–96). Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Ioannou-Georgiou, S., & Pavlou, P. (2003). Assessing young learners. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jaekel, N., Schurig, M., Florian, M., & Ritter, M. (2017). From early starters to late finishers? A longitudinal study of early foreign language learning in school. Language Learning, 67(3), 631–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnstone, R. (2000). Context-sensitive assessment of modern languages in primary (elementary) and early secondary education: Scotland and the European experience. Language Testing, 17(2), 123–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnstone, R. (2003). Evidence-based policy: Early modern language learning at primary. The Language Learning Journal, 28(1), 14–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnstone, R. (2009). An early start: What are the key conditions for generalized success? In Enever, J., Moon, J., & Raman, U. (Eds.), Young learner English language policy and implementation: international perspectives (pp. 31–42). Reading, UK: Garnet Education Publishing.Google Scholar
Johnstone, R. (2010). Introduction. In Johnstone, R. (Ed.), Learning through English: Policies, challenges and prospects (pp. 7–23). London, UK: British Council.Google Scholar
Kane, M. (2011). Validating score interpretations and uses: Messick Lecture, Language Testing Research Colloquium, Cambridge, April 2010. Language Testing, 29(1), 3–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiss, C. (2009). The role of aptitude in young learners’ foreign language learning. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), The age factor and early language learning (pp. 253–256). Berlin, Germany/New York, NY: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Kiss, C., & Nikolov, M. (2005). Developing, piloting, and validating an instrument to measure young learners’ aptitude. Language Learning, 55(1), 99–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein-Braley, C. (1997). C-tests in the context of reduced redundancy testing: an appraisal. Language Testing, 14(1), 47–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kondo-Brown, K. (2004). Investigating interviewer-candidate interactions during oral interviews for child L2 learners. Foreign Language Annals, 37(4), 602–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kormos, J. (2017). The effects of specific learning difficulties on processes of multilingual language development. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 30–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kormos, J., Brunfaut, T., & Michel, M. (2020). Motivational factors in computer-administered integrated skills tasks: A study of young learners. Language Assessment Quarterly, 17(1), 43–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lan, C., & Fan, S. (2019). Developing classroom-based language assessment literacy for in-service EFL teachers: The gaps. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 61, 112–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2018). Looking ahead: Future directions in, and future research into, second language acquisition. Foreign Language Annals, 51, 55–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lasagabaster, D., & Doiz, A. (2003). Maturational constraints on foreign-language written production. In García Mayo, M. P. & García Lecumberri, M. L. (Eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (pp. 136–159). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B., & Nation, P. (1999). A vocabulary size test of controlled productive ability. Language Testing, 16(1), 33–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, S., & Winke, P. (2018). Young learners’ response processes when taking computerized tasks for speaking assessment. Language Testing, 35(2), 239–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, H., & Gutteridge, M. (2002). Candidate performance in the young learner English tests in 2000. In Research Notes 7. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate.Google Scholar
McKay, P. (2005). Research into the assessment of school-age language learners. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 243–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKay, P. (2006). Assessing young language learners. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Merikivi, R., & Pietilä, P. (2014). Vocabulary in CLIL and in mainstream education. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 5(3), 487–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mihaljević Djigunović, J. (2006). Role of affective factors in the development of productive skills. In Nikolov, M. & Horváth, J. (Eds.), UPRT 2006: Empirical studies in English applied linguistics (pp. 9–24). Pécs, Hungary: Lingua Franca Csoport.Google Scholar
Mihaljević Djigunović, J. (2016). Individual differences and young learners’ performance on L2 speaking tests. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 243–261). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mihaljević Djigunović, J. (2019). Affect and assessment in teaching L2 to young learners. In Prošić-Santovac, D. & Rixon, S. (Eds.), Integrating assessment into early language learning and teaching practice (pp. 19–33). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mihaljević Djigunović, J., & Lopriore, L. (2011). The learner: Do individual differences matter? In Enever, J. (Ed.), ELLiE: Early language learning in Europe (pp. 29–45). London, UK: The British Council.Google Scholar
Mihaljević Djigunović, J., & Nikolov, M. (2019). Motivation of young language learners. In Lamb, M., Csizér, K., Henry, A., & Ryan, S. (Eds.), Palgrave Macmillan handbook of motivation for language learning (pp. 515–534). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mihaljević Djigunović, J., Nikolov, M., & Ottó, I. (2008). A comparative study of Croatian and Hungarian EFL students. Language Teaching Research, 12(3), 433–452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mihaljević Djigunović, J., & Vilke, M. (2000). Eight years after: Wishful thinking vs facts of life. In Moon, J. & Nikolov, M. (Eds.), Research into teaching English to young learners (pp. 66–86). Pécs, Hungary: University Press Pécs.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2003). Variation in oral skill development and age of onset. In García Mayo, M. P. & García Lecumberri, M. L. (Eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (pp. 161–181).Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2006). Age and the rate of foreign language learning. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M. (1999). ‘Why do you learn English?’ ‘Because the teacher is short.’ A study of Hungarian children's foreign language learning motivation. Language Teaching Research, 3(1), 33–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M. (2006). Test-taking strategies of 12- and 13-year-old Hungarian Learners of EFL: Why whales have migraines. Language Learning, 56(1), 1–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M. (2009). Early modern foreign language programmes and outcomes: Factors contributing to Hungarian learners’ proficiency. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes and outcomes (pp. 90–107). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M. (2016a). Trends, issues, and challenges in assessing young language learners. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 1–18). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M. (2016b). A framework for young EFL learners’ diagnostic assessment: ‘Can do statements’ and task types. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 65–92). New York, NY: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M. (2017). Students’ and teachers’ feedback on diagnostic tests for young EFL learners: Implications for classrooms. In García Mayo, M. P. (Ed.), Learning foreign languages in primary school: Research insights (pp. 249–266). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Csapó, B. (2018). The relationships between 8th graders’ L1 and L2 readings skills, inductive reasoning and socio-economic status in early English and German as a foreign language programs. System, 73, 48–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Curtain, H. A. (2000). An early start: Young learners and modern languages in Europe and beyond. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe Pub.Google Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Mihaljević Djigunović, J. (2006). Recent research on age, second language acquisition, and early foreign language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 234–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Mihaljević Djigunović, J. (2011). All shades of every color: An overview of early teaching and learning of foreign languages. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 95–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Szabó, G. (2011). Establishing difficulty levels of diagnostic listening comprehension tests for young learners of English. In Horváth, J. (Ed.), UPRT 2011: Empirical studies in English applied linguistics (pp. 73–82). Pécs, Hungary: Lingua Franca Csoport.Google Scholar
Nikolov, M. & Szabó, G. (2012). Developing diagnostic tests for young learners of EFL in grades 1 to 6. In Galaczi, E. D. & Weir, C. J. (Eds.), Voices in language assessment: Exploring the impact of language frameworks on learning, teaching and assessment – Policies, procedures and challenges, Proceedings of the ALTE Krakow Conference, July 2011. Cambridge, UK: UCLES/Cambridge University Press, 347–363.Google Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Szabó, G. (2015). A study on Hungarian 6th and 8th graders’ proficiency in English and German at dual-language schools. In Holló, D. & Károly, K. (Eds.), Inspirations in foreign language teaching: Studies in applied linguistics, language pedagogy and language teaching (pp. 184–206). Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.Google Scholar
Papageorgiou, S., & Bailey, A. (2019). Preface. In Papageorgiou, S. & Bailey, K. M. (Eds.), Global perspectives on language assessment: Research, theory, and practice (pp. xi–xv). New York, NY: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papageorgiou, S., & Baron, P. (2017). Using the Common European Framework of Reference to facilitate score interpretations for young learners’ English language proficiency assessments. In Wolf, M. K. & Butler, Y. G. (Eds.), English language proficiency assessments for young learners (pp. 136–152). New York, NY: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papageorgiou, S., Xi, X., Morgan, R., & So, Y. (2015). Developing and validating band levels and descriptors for reporting overall examinee performance. Language Assessment Quarterly, 12(2), 153–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papp, S., Khabbazbashi, N., & Miller, S. (2012). Computer-based speaking YLE test second trial: Movers and Flyers (China, May 2012), Report Number: VR 1388, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge ESOL internal report.Google Scholar
Papp, S., Rixon, S., with Field, J. (2018). Examining young language learners: The Cambridge English approach to assessing children and teenagers in schools. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Papp, S. & Salamoura, A. (2009). An exploratory study into linking young learners’ examinations to the CEFR. Research Notes 37, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge ESOL, 15–22.Google Scholar
Papp, S., Street, J., Galaczi, E., Khalifa, H., & French, A. (2010). YLE paired/group speaking modification trial, Report Number: VR 1285, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge ESOL internal report.Google Scholar
Papp, S., & Walczak, A. (2016). The development and validation of a computer-based test of English for young learners: Cambridge English young learners. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 139–190). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peng, J., & Zheng, S. (2016). A longitudinal study of a school's assessment project in Chongqing, China. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 213–241). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E., & Singleton, D. (2017). Beyond age effects in instructional L2 learning: Revisiting the age factor. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Pfenninger, S. E., & Singleton, D. (2018). Starting age overshadowed: The primacy of differential environmental and family support effects on second language attainment in an instructional context. Language Learning, 69(s1), 207–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinter, A. (2006/2017). Teaching young language learners. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pinter, A. (2011). Children learning second languages. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pižorn, K. (2009). Designing proficiency levels for English for primary and secondary school students and the impact of the CEFR. In Figueras, N. & Noijons, J. (Eds.), Linking to the CEFR levels: Research perspectives (pp. 87–102). Arnhem, Netherlands: Cito, EALTA.Google Scholar
Pižorn, K., & Moe, E. (2012). A validation study of the national assessment instruments for young English language learners in Norway and Slovenia. CEPS Journal, 2(3), 75–97.Google Scholar
Porsch, R., & Wilden, E. (2017). The development of a curriculum-based C-test for young EFL learners. In Enever, J. & Lindgren, E. (Eds.), Early language learning: Complexity and mixed methods (pp. 289–304). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puimège, E., & Peters, E. (2019). Learners’ English vocabulary knowledge prior to formal instruction: The role of learner-related and word-related variables. Language Learning, 69(4), 943–977.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rea-Dickins, P. (2000). Assessment in early years language learning contexts. Language Testing, 17(2), 115–122.Google Scholar
Rea-Dickins, P., & Gardner, S. (2000). Snares and silver bullets: Disentangling the construct of formative assessment. Language Testing, 17(2), 215–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rea-Dickins, P., & Rixon, S. (1997). The assessment of young learners of English as a foreign language. In Clapham, C. & Corson, D. (Eds.), The encyclopaedia of language and education, Vol. 7: Language Testing (pp. 151–161). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rixon, S. (2013). British Council survey of policy and practice in primary English language teaching worldwide. London, UK: British Council.Google Scholar
Rixon, S. (2016). Do developments in assessment represent the ‘coming of age’ of young learners’ English language teaching initiatives? The international picture. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 19–41). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rixon, S., & Prošić-Santovac, D. (2019). Introduction: Assessment and early language learning. In Prošić-Santovac, D. & Rixon, S. (Eds.), Integrating assessment into early language learning and teaching practice (pp. 1–16). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D., & Clapham, C. (2001). Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing, 18(1), 55–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
So, Y., Wolf, M. K., Hauck, M. C., Mollaun, P., Rybinski, P., Tumposky, D., & Wang, J. (2015). TOEFL® Junior Design Framework. TOEFL Junior Research Report No. 02. ETS Research Report, No. RR-15-13. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Sun, H., Steinkrauss, R., Wieling, M., & de Bot, K. (2018). Individual differences in very young Chinese children's English vocabulary breadth and semantic depth: Internal and external factors. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21(4), 405–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sundqvist, P., & Sylvén, L. K. (2016). Extramural English in teaching and learning: From theory and research to practice. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szabó, G., & Nikolov, M. (2013). An analysis of young learners’ feedback on diagnostic listening comprehension tests. In Mihaljević Djigunović, J. & Medved Krajnović, M. (Eds.), UZRT 2012: Empirical studies in English applied linguistics. Zagreb, Croatia: FF press, 7–21. Retrieved from http://books.google.hu/books?id=VnR3DZsHG6UC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=falseGoogle Scholar
Szabó, T. (2018a). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Vol. 1: Ages 7–10: Collated representative samples of descriptors of language competences developed for young learners. Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/collated-representative-samples-descriptors-young-learners-volume-1-ag/16808b1688Google Scholar
Szabó, T. (2018b). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Collated representative samples of descriptors of language competences developed for young learners aged 11–15 years. Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=0900001680697fc9Google Scholar
Szpotowicz, M., & Lindgren, E. (2011). Language achievements: A longitudinal perspective. In Enever, J. (Ed.), ELLiE: Early Language Learning in Europe (pp. 125–144). London, UK: British Council.Google Scholar
Timpe-Laughlin, V. (2018). A good fit? Examining the alignment between the TOEFL Junior® Standard test and the English as a foreign language curriculum in Berlin, Germany. (Research Memorandum No. RM-18-11). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Tragant, E., Marsol, A., Serrano, R., & Llanes, A. (2016). Vocabulary learning at primary school: A comparison of EFL and CLIL. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 19(5), 579–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsagari, D. (2012). FCE exam preparation discourses: Insights from an ethnographic study. Research Notes, 47, 36–48.Google Scholar
Tsagari, D. (2016). Assessment orientations of primary state school EFL teachers in two Mediterranean countries. In CEPS Journal, 6(1), 9–30. Retrieved from http://www.cepsj.si/doku.php?id=en:volumes:2016-vol6-no1.Google Scholar
Unesco. Institute for Statistics. (2012). International standard classification of education: ISCED 2011; [pdf] Retrieved from: http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/international-standardclassification-of-education-isced-2011-en.pdf.Google Scholar
Unsworth, S., Persson, L., Prins, T., & de Bot, K. (2014). An investigation of factors affecting early foreign language learning in the Netherlands. Applied Linguistics, 36(5), 527–548.Google Scholar
Weir, C. J. (2005). Language testing and validation: An evidence-based approach. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilden, E., & Porsch, R. (2016). Learning EFL from year 1 or year 3? A comparative study on children's EFL listening and reading comprehension at the end of primary education. In Nikolov, M. (Ed.), Assessing young learners of English: Global and local perspectives (pp. 191–212). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiliam, D. (2011). What is assessment for learning? Studies in Educational Evaluation, 37(1), 3–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, M. K., & Butler, Y. G. (2017). English language proficiency assessments for young learners. London, UK/New York, NY: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeung, S. S., Ng, M. L., & King, R. B. (2016). English vocabulary instruction through storybook reading for Chinese EFL kindergarteners: Comparing rich, embedded, and incidental approaches. Asian EFL Journal, 18, 81–104.Google Scholar
Yeung, S. S., Siegel, L. S., & Chan, C. K. (2013). Effects of a phonological awareness program on English reading and spelling among Hong Kong Chinese ESL children. Reading and Writing, 26(5), 681–704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zangl, R. (2000). Monitoring language skills in Austrian primary (elementary) schools: A case study. Language Testing, 17(2), 250–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar