This paper provides basic information about the breeding biology of four species of Antarctic fulmarine petrels breeding in the Rauer Islands, East Antarctica: Antarctic fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides, Antarctic petrel Thalassoica antarctica, Cape petrel Daption capense, and snow petrel Pagodroma nivea. Timing and duration of the nesting cycle, incubation and nestling periods, and timing of breeding were determined over three consecutive breeding cycles. Comparing these data with those of other populations revealed that the duration of breeding showed little interannual and spatial variation within the four species. The length of the breeding period varied between the species, with incubation period and nesting cycle length positively related to adult body mass. Nestling period length also differed between the species but was unrelated to adult body mass. Breeding period lengths for these fulmarine petrels were shorter than those for other procellarids and albatrosses. Compressed and invariant breeding cycles of Antarctic fulmarine petrels may have evolved in response to a short season which limits breeding and to opportunities presented by highly abundant food sources.

Behavioural and anatomical analyses were undertaken to determine the visual capabilities of a small nectivorous Australian marsupial, the honey possum Tarsipes rostratus. It is proposed that, despite a crepuscular lifestyle and a low visual acuity, vision contributes substantially to the honey possum's perception of its environment. Visual acuity, determined using a discrimination task, revealed a slightly higher performance in daylight (0.63 cycles/degree) than in moonlight and starlight (0.60 cycles/degree). Ultrastructural analysis of the outer retina revealed a rod to cone ratio comparable to that found in diurnal retinae (20:1 in the central retina). Two types of oil droplets were distinguished on the basis of size. The degree of neural convergence was also similar to that found in a diurnal retina, with a ratio of 12 photoreceptors:1 ganglion cell. The remarkable total field of view, approaching 240° of visual angle and including a binocular overlap of 80° in the horizontal plane, provides an efficient predator detection capacity. The visual capabilities of the honey possum are discussed in relation to its lifestyle and the associated visual requirements.

In a field study on the behavioural response of grey-sided voles Clethrionomys rufocanus to predator odour ear tattoos were used for individual marking of the voles in the field. The study was conducted over three summer seasons in the tundra of northern Norway. In this paper we report our experience with ear-tattooing in order to compare it with other methods used for marking small mammals. Methods should be compared for their different influences on physiology and behaviour and to find alternatives to the widely used toe-clipping. Looking for alternatives becomes mandatory because in many countries this method needs a special permit or is totally prohibited by law. Marking a vole with ear-tattoos took us 2 min on average. The rate for the first recapture after marking voles was 87%. This is much higher than reported recapture rates for toe-clipped voles. From all recaptured individuals we were able to identify > 89.9% of the codes. The time lag between marking and first recapture was higher than the lag between second and third recapture, which indicates a trauma caused by the marking procedure. However, there was no evidence of any weight loss as reported for other marking methods, and most of the tattooed animals did not show any behaviour indicating irritation after being marked. It is concluded that ear-tattooing, as an alternative to other methods of marking small mammals is useful even in the field. However, to assess different advantages and disadvantages in other circumstances, the chosen method should be examined critically before use.

A new species of horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus sakejiensis, is described from south-central Africa, near the source of the Zambezi River in north-west Zambia. A distinct combination of noseleaf, cranial and baculum characters are diagnostic of the species. It is a member of the ferrumequinum group, and its evolutionary affinities lie closest to R. clivosus Cretzschmar, 1828 and particularly the West African R. hillorum Koopman, 1989. This discovery of a new species of Rhinolophus in the clivosus complex required reappraisal of these and other related taxa. Known only from high forest in West Africa, hillorum is the closest relative of sakejiensis collected in mesic savanna in south-central Africa. Comparisons of this new species with other large Afrotropical Rhinolophus shows that hillorum is specifically distinct from clivosus, and endorses the specific status of deckeni and silvestris. The contemporary taxonomy of Afrotropical Rhinolophus was incapable of accommodating this new taxon, and the latter part of this paper argues for a more objective characterization of rhinolophids as evolutionary species.

The genus Gerbillus (Mammalia: Rodentia) is characterized by an important morphological homogeneity associated with an extensive karyotypic diversity. Here we describe a new species of Gerbillus from the Inner Delta of the Niger River in Mali, on the basis of morphological and chromosomal data. This new species seems to be morphologically very similar to G. campestris, another bare-footed species known from northern Africa. Nevertheless, it can be distinguished from the latter species by a different molar pattern and a specific karyotype. The three specimens on which this description is based were caught in a rocky outcrop, and behavioural observations in captivity suggest an adaptation to life in rocky habitats. This finding is unusual as rodents of the genus Gerbillus are generally sand-dwellers. Moreover, this new species enriches the gerbil community of this Sahelian region, in which at least nine species of the genus can be found. Finally, this description highlights the importance of chromosomal studies for the characterization of biological diversity in tropical rodents, where morphological sibling species are numerous.

The pupillary response to the onset of bright light (10 000 lx) and darkness (4 lx) is compared in four species of Australian marsupials with different activity patterns. Maximal and minimal pupil width in relation to eye width was measured and the rate of change assessed. In the arrhythmic fat-tailed dunnart Sminthopsis crassicaudata, there were marked changes in pupil size with the range of pupil width to eye width of 0.73–0.10; constriction was rapid (54% s−1) and dilatation slower at 10% s−1. The crepuscular honey possum Tarsipes rostratus had a small range of pupil size at 0.56–0.46, with constriction and dilatation being slow at 4% s−1 and 3% s−1, respectively. The strictly nocturnal burrowing bettong Bettongia lesueur had a small pupil with a limited size range of 0.21–0.12; constriction at 25% s−1 outstripped dilatation at 7% s−1. The greater bilby Macrotis lagotis, also strictly nocturnal, had a small and immobile pupil with a fixed pupil width to eye width ratio of 0.08. In conclusion, contrary to most previous assumptions, pupil size is not fixed in marsupials, and not all nocturnal animals possess a wide pupil. Moreover, as a regulatory process, pupillary mobility reflects more than a differentiation between diurnal or nocturnal condition, and seems to correlate with specific visual requirements. The results of this study are discussed in relation to the lifestyle of the species and the associated illumination levels, and as a method of predicting the marsupials' periods of activity in the field.

Rates of increase, survival and reproduction were studied in two re-introduced populations of mountain ungulates, the Pyrenean chamois (also named isard, Rupicapra pyrenaica) and the ibex (Capra ibex) in the French Alps. The populations were monitored from 1983 to 1998 (ibex) or 1984 to 1999 (isard) using capture, marking and resighting of individuals. Population rates of increase were estimated during the colonizing phase from: (1) a time series of estimates of population size; (2) projection matrices based on rates of survival and fecundity. Both populations had exponential rates of increase, with annual multiplication rates of 1.28 for isard and 1.30 for ibex. Age of first reproduction was 2 years in both species, with 77% of females breeding at this age in isard and 43% in ibex. From 3 years of age onwards, 90% of isard and 87% of ibex females bred each year. Survival rates of adult females, estimated using capture–recapture models, equalled 0.94 for isard and 0.98 for ibex, whatever the age and year. The projection matrix led to a slightly lower asymptotic multiplication rate than the time series of population size. Despite adult body size of the ibex being about twice that of the isard, no difference was detected in the intrinsic rate of increase between the two species. This supported the hypotheses of homogeneous life-history traits among ungulates, varying little with body size.

The effects of intermittent feeding on the growth of oophagous Chirixalus eiffingeri and herbivorous Chirixalus idiootocus tadpoles were studied. Tadpoles were fed, once every 1, 2, 4, 8, 14, or 20 days (feeding treatments 1D, 2D, 4D, 8D, 14D, and 20D, respectively). At each feeding, C. eiffingeri were given yolk from chicken eggs, and those of C. idiootocus were given boiled spinach, ad libitum. For each species, each treatment consisted of 12 replicates of one tadpole each. For C. eiffingeri, the 1D feeding treatment was eliminated because the tadpoles were unwilling to eat daily. Chirixalus eiffingeri tadpoles in the 2D and 4D feeding treatments grew fastest, while tadpoles in the 20D treatment grew slowest. At least five tadpoles from each treatment, except 20D treatment, reached metamorphosis. Chirixalus idiootocus tadpoles in the 1D and 2D feeding treatments showed signs of growing, but tadpoles in the other four treatments did not grow at all. Only tadpoles in the 1D treatment reached metamorphosis. In another experiment, yolk digestion in the stomach of C. eiffingeri tadpoles was monitored. Yolk use was slow and egg yolk remained in the stomach for at least 8 days. Chirixalus idiootocus tadpoles could not tolerate long periods without food, probably because their digestive tract had a short clearance time and their stomach was incapable of long-term food storage. In contrast, between feedings, C. eiffingeri tadpoles seemed to mobilize food stored in their stomach, providing a continuous supply of nutrition to facilitate normal growth and development. These results and observations provide important insights into the maternal brood care of female C. eiffingeri.

Two of the four living species of tapir (genus Tapirus) possess a distinct sagittal crest, but the development of this crest follows an unusual path in one species, T. terrestris. In T. pinchaque, T. bairdii, and T. indicus, as in other mammals, temporal ridges form on either side of the braincase, and, as postnatal ontogeny proceeds, these ridges migrate dorsad and mediad. In T. pinchaque and other mammals with a true sagittal crest, the temporal ridges eventually meet at the dorsal midline of the skull. In T. terrestris, paired temporal ridges never develop; instead, the crest simply erupts from the skull midline early in postnatal ontogeny. The sagittal crest continues to heighten, resulting in the tall crest that is characteristic of this species. Development of the sagittal crest is generally thought to be linked to the development of the temporalis muscle. Dissections of one adult and one neonate of T. terrestris indicate that the temporalis is strongly developed in this species and unusually extensive in its origin at an early age. A lack of comparative data forbids any conclusive statements about the relative development of this muscle as compared to that in other tapirs, but the unusual pattern of crest development seen in T. terrestris may be a consequence of the development of the temporalis muscle in this herbivorous ungulate. The pattern of crest development observed in T. terrestris is unique among tapirs, and perhaps among mammals. This explanation of the unusual sagittal crest morphology of T. terrestris is consistent with current interpretations of skull morphology and the taxonomy of Pleistocene Tapirus.

Geophilomorph and lithobiomorph centipedes were collected from 45 sampling sites spread across an area of c. 4000 km2 in north-east England. Data on physical variables were also collected at these sites, including the soil variables of pH, moisture content, organic content and compaction, which have been generally neglected in previous studies of centipede ecology. Fourteen species were found overall, evenly split between the two orders. Of these 14, three were ‘rare’ (≤ three individuals), six were ‘intermediate’ (10–50 individuals), and five were ‘common’ (100+ individuals). Analysis of presence/absence data on the intermediate species showed that the geophilomorphs were markedly synanthropic whereas the lithobiomorphs were not. More extensive analysis of the data on the five common species revealed a number of patterns, including: (1) a negative association between the two largest lithobiomorphs; (2) the importance of many predictor variables, including the soil variables, but with very different patterns for different species. Overall, synanthropic sites had the highest centipede diversities, but this effect was almost entirely caused by the synanthropic tendencies of the ‘intermediate’ geophilomorphs.

The tentacled snake Erpeton tentaculatum lives its entire life in fresh water where it feeds mostly on fish. Because the tentacled snake strikes underwater, the physical demands differ from those of air, and require modified methods of prey capture compared to terrestrial snakes. To examine this, we scored the feeding behaviours of five snakes and used multiple high-speed films of two snakes striking fishes. In the pre-strike phase, the snake usually assumed a J-shaped posture with its head turned posteriorly at the neck and its body held straight. The snake waited in such a rigid posture for the fish to move into the very narrow ‘window’ between turned head and body. Tentacles remained erected, and motionless. The strike was extremely rapid, occurring typically from pre-set J-shaped postures, not from sigmoidal body coils. As the head turned and travelled to the fish, the mouth opened and water collected in the ballooning throat. Significant suction feeding was absent. The fish was secured on buccal teeth and quickly swallowed by unilateral displacements of the jaws. Prey capture and swallowing exhibited specialized modifications of the general snake predatory behaviour to address the hydrodynamic demands of such an underwater strike.

Dental polymorphism in a population of the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L.) from Poland was studied in a sample of 1453 specimens (637 males, 535 females and 281 specimens of unknown sex). Frequency distributions in 15 groups of morphotypes (A–O) were analysed and a pattern of qualitative features was constructed on the ground of frequency analysis of particular morphotypes. An increase in complication of tooth shape of the carnassial region (P4, P4, M1, M1), as well as higher morphological variation of the teeth from borders of the cheek rows (P1, P1, M2, M3) were ascertained. Almost all groups of morphotypes, excluding three, presented absence of significant sexual differences. The pattern of qualitative features was used to verify an existing model of genetic control of evolutionary changes in dental morphology of mammals. Positive, statistically significant relationships between the dental size and presence or degree of formation of the dental structures confirmed the operation of the size-related mechanism, i.e. threshold mechanism, during ontogeny.

Johnstone Strait provides important summer habitat for the northern resident killer whales Orcinus orca of British Columbia. The site is also an active whale-watching area. A voluntary code of conduct requests that boats do not approach whales closer than 100 m to address perceived, rather than demonstrated, effects of boat traffic on killer whales. The purpose of the study was to test the relevance of this distance guideline. Relationships between boat traffic and whale behaviour were studied in 1995 and 1996 by shore-based theodolite tracking of 25 identifiable focal animals from the population of 209 whales. Individual killer whales were repeatedly tracked in the absence of boats and during approaches by a 5.2 m motorboat that paralleled each whale at 100 m. In addition, whales were tracked opportunistically, when no effort was made to manipulate boat traffic. Dive times, swim speeds, and surface-active behaviours such as breaching and spy-hopping were recorded. On average, male killer whales swam significantly faster than females. Whales responded to experimental approaches by adopting a less predictable path than observed during the preceding, no-boat period, although males and females used subtly different avoidance tactics. Females responded by swimming faster and increasing the angle between successive dives, whereas males maintained their speed and chose a smooth, but less direct, path. Canonical correlations between whale behaviour and vessel proximity are consistent with these conclusions, which suggest that weakening whale-watching guidelines, or not enforcing them, would result in higher levels of disturbance. High variability in whale behaviour underscores the importance of large sample size and extensive experimentation when assessing the impacts of human activity on killer whales.

The timing and duration of activity and foraging behaviour of mahogany gliders Petaurus gracilis was studied every 2 months over 2 years by direct observation. The amount of time spent active each night throughout the year ranged from 8 to 10.1 h (or 63–80% of the dark phase) and did not change significantly between the wet and dry seasons. Although gliders generally had one continuous period of activity, they were observed on eight occasions to return to their dens during the night for a mean of 85 min, with a mean entrance and exit being 22:59 and 00:25, respectively. The amount of time spent foraging (i.e. feeding and travelling) ranged from 40% of the time outside the den in January to 77% in September. The overall mean was 61.1%, with the remainder of the night spent either stationary (mean 24.3%), grooming (mean 11.8%), in the den and then re-emerging (mean 2.5%) or vocalizing (mean 0.3%). Activity comprised mostly the behaviours associated with foraging: feeding (44.9%), climbing (13.2%) and gliding (3.0%). The amount of time spent active and feeding was similar to that observed for other petaurid marsupials such as yellow-bellied glider P. australis, sugar glider P. breviceps and squirrel glider P. norfolcensis. There is a general relationship between diet, body size and amount of time spent feeding among the exudivorous gliders and folivorous possums, with feeding time increasing with increasing body mass in exudivorous possums and decreasing with increasing body mass in folivorous possums.

The following Applications were published on 28 September 2001 in Volume 58, Part 3 of the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. Comment or advice on any of these Applications is invited for publication (subject to editing) in the Bulletin and should be sent to the Executive Secretary, International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, c/o The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, U.K. (e-mail: [email protected]).