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Performing Catfish Row in the Soviet Union: The Everyman Opera Company and Porgy and Bess, 1955–56

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 October 2017

MICHAEL SY UY
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Abstract

For three weeks in 1955 and 1956 the Everyman Opera Company staged Porgy and Bess in Leningrad and Moscow. In the previous two years, the Robert Breen and Blevins Davis production of Gershwin's opera had toured Europe and Latin America, funded by the U.S. State Department. Yet when Breen negotiated a performance tour to Russia, the American government denied funding, stating, among other reasons, that a production would be “politically premature.” Surprisingly, however, the opera was performed with the Soviet Ministry of Culture paying the tour costs in full. I argue that this tour, negotiated amid the growing civil rights movement, was a non-paradigmatic example of cultural exchange at the beginning of the Cold War: an artistic product funded at different times by both the United States and the Soviet Union. Through an examination of the tour's archival holdings, interviews with surviving cast members, and the critical reception in the historically black press, this essay contributes to ongoing questions of Cold War scholarship, including discussions on race, identity, and the unpredictable nature of cultural exchange.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the Society for American Music , Volume 11 , Issue 4 , November 2017 , pp. 470 - 501
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Music 2017 

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References

References

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“Negro America Scores Biggest Gains since Emancipation Day.” Ebony, November 1955.Google Scholar
“‘Porgy’ Clicks in Leningrad.” Pittsburgh Courier, 7 January 1956.Google Scholar
“‘Porgy’ Promises to Educate Russians.” Baltimore Afro-American, 8 October 1955.Google Scholar
Prattis, P. L. “Horizon: What Is ‘Representative’?” Pittsburgh Courier, 15 October 1955.Google Scholar
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Alpert, Hollis. The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess: The Story of an American Classic. New York: Knopf, 1990.Google Scholar
Angelou, Maya. Singin’ and Swingin’ and Gettin’ Merry Like Christmas. New York: Random House, 1976.Google Scholar
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Brown, Gwynne Kuhner. “Problems of Race and Genre in the Critical Reception of Porgy and Bess.” Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 2006.Google Scholar
Capote, Truman. The Muses Are Heard, an Account. New York: Random House, 1956.Google Scholar
Carroll, Mark. Music and Ideology in Cold War Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Clarke, Gerald. Capote: A Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.Google Scholar
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Crawford, Richard. “It Ain't Necessarily Soul: Gershwin's ‘Porgy and Bess’ as a Symbol.” Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research 8 (1972): 17–38.Google Scholar
Crawford, Richard. “Where Did Porgy and Bess Come From?” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 36, no. 4 (2006): 697–734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croft, Clare. Dancers as Diplomats: American Choreography in Cultural Exchange. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Cruse, Harold. The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual. New York: Morrow, 1967.Google Scholar
Dudziak, Mary. Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Eerde, John van. “The Comédie Française in the U.S.S.R.” The French Review 29, no. 2 (1955): 131–39.Google Scholar
“Ellington on Gershwin's Porgy and Bess—and a Response from the Office of Irving Mills (1935/1936).” In The Duke Ellington Reader, edited by Tucker, Mark, 114–18. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Fosler-Lussier, Danielle. “Cultural Diplomacy as Cultural Globalization: The University of Michigan Jazz Band in Latin America.” Journal of the Society for American Music 4, no. 1 (2010): 59–93.Google Scholar
Fosler-Lussier, Danielle. Music in America's Cold War Diplomacy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Fosler-Lussier, Danielle. “Music Pushed, Music Pulled: Cultural Diplomacy, Globalization, and Imperialism.” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (2012): 53–64.Google Scholar
Frolova-Walker, Marina. Russian Music and Nationalism from Glinka to Stalin. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008.Google Scholar
Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Gould-Davies, Nigel. “The Logic of Soviet Cultural Diplomacy.” Diplomatic History 27, no. 2 (2003): 193–214.Google Scholar
Harold, Christine, and Michael DeLuca, Kevin. “Behold the Corpse: Violent Images and the Case of Emmett Till.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 8, no. 2 (2005): 263–86.Google Scholar
Hixson, Walter. Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1997.Google Scholar
Horne, Gerald. Black and Red: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944–1963. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Krenn, Michael. Black Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department 1945–1969. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.Google Scholar
Lynch, Christopher. “Cheryl Crawford's Porgy and Bess: Navigating Cultural Hierarchy in 1941.” Journal of the Society for American Music 10, no. 3 (2016): 331–63.Google Scholar
Monod, David. “Disguise, Containment and the Porgy and Bess Revival of 1952–1956.” Journal of American Studies 35, no. 2 (2001): 275–312.Google Scholar
Monod, David. Settling Scores: German Music, Denazification, and the Americans, 1945–1953. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Monson, Ingrid. Freedom Sounds: Civil Rights Call Out to Jazz and Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Mueller, Darren. “The Ambassadorial LPs of Dizzy Gillespie: World Statesman and Dizzy in Greece.” Journal of the Society for American Music 10, no. 3 (2016): 239–69.Google Scholar
Noonan, Ellen. The Strange Career of Porgy and Bess: Race, Culture, and America's Most Famous Opera. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Parks, J. D. Culture, Conflict and Coexistence: American-Soviet Cultural Relations, 1917–1958. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1983.Google Scholar
Plummer, Brenda Gayle. Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Pollack, Howard. George Gershwin: His Life and Works. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Richmond, Yale. Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Saunders, Frances Stonor. Who Paid the Piper? The C.I.A. And the Cultural Cold War. London: Granta, 1999.Google Scholar
Shreffler, Anne. “Ideologies of Serialism: Stravinsky's Threni and the Congress for Cultural Freedom.” In Music and the Aesthetics of Modernity, edited by Berger, Karol and Newcomb, Anthony, 217–45. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Stern, Ludmila. “The All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries and French Intellectuals, 1925–1929.” Australian Journal of Politics and History 45, no. 1 (1999): 99–109.Google Scholar
Taruskin, Richard. “Music and Totalitarian Society.” In Oxford History of Western Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Thompson, Frank. Jr. “Are the Communists Right in Calling Us Cultural Barbarians?” Music Journal 13, no. 6 (1955): 5, 20.Google Scholar
Thomson, Virgil. “George Gershwin.” Modern Music 13 (1935): 13.Google Scholar
von Eschen, Penny. Satchmo Blows up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
von Eschen, Penny. “Who's the Real Ambassador? Exploding Cold War Racial Ideology.” In Cold War Constructions: The Political Culture of United States Imperialism, 1945–1966, edited by Appy, Christian G., 110–31. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Zubok, Vladislav Martinovich. A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Angelou, Maya. Phone interview with author, 7 June 2012.Google Scholar
Flowers, Martha. Phone interview with author, 12 June 2012.Google Scholar
Terry, Brandon. Conversation with author, 3 November 2013.Google Scholar
Central Decimal File, 1955–1959, Record Group 59; National Archives II, College Park, MD.Google Scholar
The Robert Breen / ANTA Theater Collection. Special Collections Research Center, Mason Archival Repository Service. George Mason University, Fairfax, VA. http://mars.gmu.edu/handle/1920/4609.Google Scholar
Robert Breen Collection. The Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee Theatre Research Institute. Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.Google Scholar
Bogdanov-Berezovsky, Valerian. “Guest Performance of the ‘Everyman Opera’ Company.” Evening Leningrad, 29 December 1955.Google Scholar
Capote, Truman. “Porgy and Bess in Russia: The Muses Are Heard.” The New Yorker, 27 October 1956.Google Scholar
Capote, Truman. “Porgy and Bess in Russia: When the Cannons are Silent.” The New Yorker, 20 October 1956.Google Scholar
“Catfish Alley in Moscow.” Chicago Defender, 20 August 1955.Google Scholar
“Choice of ‘Porgy’ for Russian Tour Is Alternately Rapped and Lauded.” Baltimore Afro-American, 22 October 1955.Google Scholar
Gershwin, George. “Rhapsody in Catfish Row.” New York Times, 20 October 1935.Google Scholar
Hangen, Welles. “‘Porgy and Bess’ in the U.S.S.R.” New York Times, 15 January 1956.Google Scholar
“Huge Moscow Crowd Charmed by ‘Porgy and Bess’ Wedding.” Baltimore Afro-American, 28 January 1956.Google Scholar
Kovalev, Yuri. “Porgy and Bess.” Smena, 29 December 1955.Google Scholar
Morschikhin. “American Opera in Leningrad.” Leningrad Pravda, 5 January 1956.Google Scholar
“‘Porgy’ Accepts Bid from Soviet.” New York Times, 1 September 1955.Google Scholar
“Porgy and Bess.” New York Times, 1 October 1955.Google Scholar
“Negro America Scores Biggest Gains since Emancipation Day.” Ebony, November 1955.Google Scholar
“‘Porgy’ Clicks in Leningrad.” Pittsburgh Courier, 7 January 1956.Google Scholar
“‘Porgy’ Promises to Educate Russians.” Baltimore Afro-American, 8 October 1955.Google Scholar
Prattis, P. L. “Horizon: What Is ‘Representative’?” Pittsburgh Courier, 15 October 1955.Google Scholar
“The Theater: Porgy in Leningrad.” Time, 9 January 1956.Google Scholar
“U.S. Will Not Pay for “Porgy” Visit.” New York Times, 28 September 1955.Google Scholar
Zagoursky, B. “Porgy and Bess—Visit of Everyman Opera Company to U.S.S.R.” Moscow Izvestia, 12 January 1956.Google Scholar
Allen, Ray, and Cunningham, George. “Cultural Uplift and Double-Consciousness: African American Responses to the 1935 Opera Porgy and Bess.” Musical Quarterly 88, no. 3 (2005): 342–69.Google Scholar
Alpert, Hollis. The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess: The Story of an American Classic. New York: Knopf, 1990.Google Scholar
Angelou, Maya. Singin’ and Swingin’ and Gettin’ Merry Like Christmas. New York: Random House, 1976.Google Scholar
Ansari, Emily Abrams. “‘Masters of the President's Music’: Cold War Composers and the United States Government.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2009.Google Scholar
Ansari, Emily Abrams. “Music Diplomacy in an Emergency: Eisenhower's ‘Secret Weapon,’ Iceland, 1954–1959.” In Music and International History in the Twentieth Century, edited by Gienow-Hecht, Jessica. New York: Berghahn, 2015.Google Scholar
Ansari, Emily Abrams. “Musical Americanism, Cold War Consensus Culture, and the U.S.–U.S.S.R. Composers’ Exchange, 1958–60.” Musical Quarterly 97, no. 3 (2014): 360–89.Google Scholar
Ansari, Emily Abrams. “Shaping the Politics of Cold War Musical Diplomacy: An Epistemic Community of American Composers.” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (2012): 41–52.Google Scholar
Baldwin, Kate. Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters between Black and Red, 1922–1963. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Binkiewicz, Donna M. Federalizing the Muse: United States Arts Policy and the National Endowment for the Arts, 1965–1980. Chapel Hill: University of Chapel Hill Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Bischof, Gunter, and Dockrill, Saki, eds. Cold War Respite: The Geneva Summit of 1955. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Borstelmann, Thomas. The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Brown, Gwynne Kuhner. “Performers in Catfish Row: Porgy and Bess as Collaboration.” In Blackness in Opera, edited by André, Naomi, Bryan, Karen M., and Saylor, Eric, 164–86. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Brown, Gwynne Kuhner. “Problems of Race and Genre in the Critical Reception of Porgy and Bess.” Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 2006.Google Scholar
Capote, Truman. The Muses Are Heard, an Account. New York: Random House, 1956.Google Scholar
Carroll, Mark. Music and Ideology in Cold War Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Clarke, Gerald. Capote: A Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.Google Scholar
Cook, Susan C. “Jazz as Deliverance: The Reception and Institution of American Jazz During the Weimar Republic.” American Music 7, no. 1 (1989): 30–47.Google Scholar
Crawford, Richard. “It Ain't Necessarily Soul: Gershwin's ‘Porgy and Bess’ as a Symbol.” Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research 8 (1972): 17–38.Google Scholar
Crawford, Richard. “Where Did Porgy and Bess Come From?” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 36, no. 4 (2006): 697–734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croft, Clare. Dancers as Diplomats: American Choreography in Cultural Exchange. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Cruse, Harold. The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual. New York: Morrow, 1967.Google Scholar
Dudziak, Mary. Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Eerde, John van. “The Comédie Française in the U.S.S.R.” The French Review 29, no. 2 (1955): 131–39.Google Scholar
“Ellington on Gershwin's Porgy and Bess—and a Response from the Office of Irving Mills (1935/1936).” In The Duke Ellington Reader, edited by Tucker, Mark, 114–18. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Fosler-Lussier, Danielle. “Cultural Diplomacy as Cultural Globalization: The University of Michigan Jazz Band in Latin America.” Journal of the Society for American Music 4, no. 1 (2010): 59–93.Google Scholar
Fosler-Lussier, Danielle. Music in America's Cold War Diplomacy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Fosler-Lussier, Danielle. “Music Pushed, Music Pulled: Cultural Diplomacy, Globalization, and Imperialism.” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (2012): 53–64.Google Scholar
Frolova-Walker, Marina. Russian Music and Nationalism from Glinka to Stalin. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008.Google Scholar
Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Gould-Davies, Nigel. “The Logic of Soviet Cultural Diplomacy.” Diplomatic History 27, no. 2 (2003): 193–214.Google Scholar
Harold, Christine, and Michael DeLuca, Kevin. “Behold the Corpse: Violent Images and the Case of Emmett Till.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 8, no. 2 (2005): 263–86.Google Scholar
Hixson, Walter. Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1997.Google Scholar
Horne, Gerald. Black and Red: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944–1963. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Krenn, Michael. Black Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department 1945–1969. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.Google Scholar
Lynch, Christopher. “Cheryl Crawford's Porgy and Bess: Navigating Cultural Hierarchy in 1941.” Journal of the Society for American Music 10, no. 3 (2016): 331–63.Google Scholar
Monod, David. “Disguise, Containment and the Porgy and Bess Revival of 1952–1956.” Journal of American Studies 35, no. 2 (2001): 275–312.Google Scholar
Monod, David. Settling Scores: German Music, Denazification, and the Americans, 1945–1953. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Monson, Ingrid. Freedom Sounds: Civil Rights Call Out to Jazz and Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Mueller, Darren. “The Ambassadorial LPs of Dizzy Gillespie: World Statesman and Dizzy in Greece.” Journal of the Society for American Music 10, no. 3 (2016): 239–69.Google Scholar
Noonan, Ellen. The Strange Career of Porgy and Bess: Race, Culture, and America's Most Famous Opera. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Parks, J. D. Culture, Conflict and Coexistence: American-Soviet Cultural Relations, 1917–1958. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1983.Google Scholar
Plummer, Brenda Gayle. Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Pollack, Howard. George Gershwin: His Life and Works. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Richmond, Yale. Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Saunders, Frances Stonor. Who Paid the Piper? The C.I.A. And the Cultural Cold War. London: Granta, 1999.Google Scholar
Shreffler, Anne. “Ideologies of Serialism: Stravinsky's Threni and the Congress for Cultural Freedom.” In Music and the Aesthetics of Modernity, edited by Berger, Karol and Newcomb, Anthony, 217–45. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Stern, Ludmila. “The All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries and French Intellectuals, 1925–1929.” Australian Journal of Politics and History 45, no. 1 (1999): 99–109.Google Scholar
Taruskin, Richard. “Music and Totalitarian Society.” In Oxford History of Western Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Thompson, Frank. Jr. “Are the Communists Right in Calling Us Cultural Barbarians?” Music Journal 13, no. 6 (1955): 5, 20.Google Scholar
Thomson, Virgil. “George Gershwin.” Modern Music 13 (1935): 13.Google Scholar
von Eschen, Penny. Satchmo Blows up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
von Eschen, Penny. “Who's the Real Ambassador? Exploding Cold War Racial Ideology.” In Cold War Constructions: The Political Culture of United States Imperialism, 1945–1966, edited by Appy, Christian G., 110–31. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Zubok, Vladislav Martinovich. A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Angelou, Maya. Phone interview with author, 7 June 2012.Google Scholar
Flowers, Martha. Phone interview with author, 12 June 2012.Google Scholar
Terry, Brandon. Conversation with author, 3 November 2013.Google Scholar