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The First Mongol Invasion of Europe: Goals and Results

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 June 2021

ALEXANDER V. MAIOROV
ALEXANDER V. MAIOROV*
Affiliation:
Saint Petersburg State [email protected]
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Abstract

This article establishes that the tümens which took part in Jebe and Sübedei's Raid to Europe were not merely conducting a reconnaissance mission, as it is usually described. The campaign was part of Chinggis Khan's conquering strategy aimed at the complete subjugation of the Kipchak and the conquest of the steppe territories not only in Asia but also in Europe. The task of implementing this strategic plan was given to Prince Jochi as the ruler of the western ulus of the Mongol Empire. Jochi was to bring his main military force to Europe while Sübedei, together with Jebe, advanced with their corps to defeat the Kipchak. The Grand Prince of Kiev and other princes of Southern Rus’, being allies and relatives of the Kipchak rulers, gave them military support. Therefore, the Mongols retaliated against the Rus’. After defeating the allied Rus’ and Kipchak forces at the Kalka River, the Mongols succeeded in crossing the Dnieper and went as far as Kiev. However, the refusal of Jochi to bring his main forces to assist the Mongol vanguard forces nullified the achievements and victories of Jebe and Sübedei. Jochi's reluctance to participate in the Western Campaign of 1221–23 was related to his conflicts with his younger brothers and Chinggis Khan himself, which, in its turn, brought about Jochi's loss of his former status in the empire, a severe illness and untimely death. As a result, Chinggis Khan had to reconsider his general conquest strategy; the conquest of Kipchak and Rus’ was postponed for one and a half decades.

Keywords

Mongol InvasionChinggis KhanJochiJebeSübedei
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , Volume 32 , Special Issue 2: Divine Sovereignty, Morality and the State: Maududi and His Influence , April 2022 , pp. 411 - 438
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Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Royal Asiatic Society

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Footnotes

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Stephen Pow (Central European University) for his help in preparing this article for publication. This study was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Science Foundation (Российский Научный Фонд), project no. 21-18-00166.

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61 Tornberg (ed.), Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil fī’l-ta'rīkh, vol. XII, p. 379, (transl.) Richards, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr, vol. III, p. 218; Pow, ‘The Last Campaign and Death of Jebe Noyan’, pp. 37–38.

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75 Rawshan and Mūsawī (eds.), Jāmiʻ at-tawārīkh, p. 208, translated by Thackston, Jami'u’t-tawarikh, p. 110.

76 Pow, ‘The Last Campaign and Death of Jebe Noyan’, p. 36.

77 Khrustaliev, Rus’ i mongol'skoe nashestvie, pp. 69–71 (this contains a review of primary sources and secondary literature on this subject).

78 For the progress of the battle on Kalka, see Fennell, J. L. I., The Crisis of Medieval Russia, 1200–1304 (London and New York, 1983), pp. 63–68Google Scholar; Leo de Hartog, Russia and the Mongol Yoke. The History of the Russian Principalities and the Golden Horde 1221–1502 (London and New York, 1996), pp. 22–26; M. Dimnik, The Dynasty of Chernigov, 1146–1246 (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 292–298; Halperin, The Tatar Yoke, pp. 23–30; Izmaylov, ‘The Eastern European Campaigns of 1223–1240’, pp. 141–144; Khrustaliev, Rus’ i mongol'skoe nashestvie, pp. 59–90.

79 Pow, ‘The Last Campaign and Death of Jebe Noyan’, pp. 31–51; for objections, see D. M. Timokhin and V. V. Tishin, ‘O novykh tendentsiiakh v izuchenii istorii mongol'skikh zavoevanii: na primere stat'i Stivena Pou ‘Posledniaia kampaniia i smert’ Dzhebe-noiona’’[On New Trends in the Studies of the History of the Mongol Conquests: Based on the Example of Stephen Pow's Article “The Last Campaign and Death of Jebe Noyan”], Golden Horde Review 6 (2018), pp. 596–617.

80 Qazwīnī (ed.), Juwaynī, Ta'rīkh-i jahān-gushā, p. 111, translated by Boyle, The History of the World-Conqueror by Juvaini, p. 140; Barthold, Turkestan down to the Mongol Invasion, p. 455.

81 On the identity of the geographical names Kiwa and Kiev, see Rachewiltz, The Secret History of the Mongols, pp. 960–961.

82 Tornberg (ed.), Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil fī’l-ta'rīkh, vol. XII, pp. 387–388, translated Richards, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr, vol. III, p. 224.

83 Rawshan and Mūsawī (eds.), Jāmiʻ at-tawārīkh, p. 753, translated by Thackston, Jami'u’t-tawarikh, p. 260.

84 Shakhmatov (ed.), Ipat'evskaia Letopis’, col. 745.

85 Perfecky, The Galician-Volynian Chronicle, p. 30.

86 See, for example, Pow, ‘The Last Campaign and Death of Jebe Noyan’, p. 45.

87 P. P. Tolochko, Kiev i Kievskaia zemlia v epokhu feodal'noi razdroblennosti XII–XIII vekov [Kiev and Kiev land in the era of feudal fragmentation of the XII–XIII centuries] (Kiev, 1980), p. 142; see also Fennell, The Crisis of Medieval Russia, p. 66; Dimnik, The Dynasty of Chernigov, p. 298.

88 Shakhmatov (ed.), Ipat'evskaia Letopis’, col. 745, transl. Perfecky, The Galician-Volynian Chronicle, p. 30.

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90 J. Richard, ‘The Relatio de Davide as a source for Mongol history and the legend of Prester John’, in Prester John, the Mongols and the Ten Lost Tribes, (eds.) C. F. Beckingham and B. Hamilton (Aldershot, 1996), pp. 139–158; Aigle, D., The Mongol Empire between Myth and Reality: Studies in Anthropological History (Leiden, 2014)Google Scholar (Iran Studies, vol. 11), pp. 41–65.

91 C. Rodenberg (ed.), ‘Epistolae saeculi XIII e Regestis Pontificum Romanorum selectae per G. H. Pertz I’, in Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Epistolae saeculi XIII e Regestis Pontificum Romanorum, vol. I (Berlin, 1883), no. 252, p. 179.

92 Ibid., no. 251, p. 179.

93 R. Bedrosian (translator), Kirakos Ganjakets'i's History of the Armenians (New York, 1986), p. 166; B. Dashdondog, ‘The Mongol Conquerors in Armenia’, in Caucasus during the Mongol Period – Der Kaukasus in der Mongolenzeit, (eds.) J. Tubach, S. G. Vashalomidze, and M. Zimmer (Wiesbaden, 2012), pp. 57–58.

94 Nasonov (ed.), Novgorodskaia Pervaia letopis’, p. 62, (transl.) Michell and Forbes, The Chronicle of Novgorod, p. 65.

95 Tornberg (ed.), Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil fī’l-ta'rīkh, vol. XII, pp. 385–386, translated by Richards, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr, vol. III, pp. 222–223; see also Allsęn, ‘Mongols and North Caucasia’, pp. 12–15.

96 Dörrie, ‘Drei Texte zur Geschichte der Ungarn und Mongolen’, p. 154, unpublished, translated by S. Pow.

97 S. A. Pletneva and T. I. Makarova, ‘Iuzhnoe gorodishche u sela Vitacheva’ [Southern settlement near the village of Vitachev], in Kratkie Soobshcheniia Instituta Arkheologii Akademii Nauk SSSR, vol. 104 (Moscow, 1965), pp. 54–61.

98 Tolochko, Kiev i Kievskaia zemlia, p. 142.

99 Shakhmatov (ed.), Ipat'evskaia Letopis’, col. 782, translated by Perfecky, The Galician-Volynian Chronicle, p. 47.

100 Maiorov, A. V., ‘The Mongolian Capture of Kiev: The Two Dates’, Slavonic and East European Review 94 (2016), pp. 702–714CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

101 Maiorov, A. V., ‘The Mongol Invasion of South Rus’ in 1239–1240: Controversial and Unresolved Questions’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 29 (2016), pp. 473–499CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

102 Tornberg (ed.), Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil fī’l-ta'rīkh, vol. XII, p. 388, translated by Richards, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr, vol. III, p. 224.

103 Rawshan and Mūsawī (eds.), Jāmiʻ at-tawārīẖ, p. 208, translated by Thackston, Jami'u’t-tawarikh, p. 110.

104 A. C. M. D'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols, depuis Tchinguiz-Khan jusqu'à Timour Bey ou Tamerlan, vol. I (Hague and Amsterdam, 1834), pp. 353–354; Berezin, ‘Pervoe nashestvie mongolov na Rossiiu’, p. 246.

105 Jackson, ‘The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire’, p. 196; see also Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan, p. 137; I. Togan, ‘Dzhuchi khan i znachenie osady Khorezma kak simvola zakonnosti’ [Jochi Khan and the siege of Khwārazm as symbol of legitimacy], in Istochnikovedenie istorii Ulusa Dzhuchi, (ed.) Usmanov, pp. 164–169.

106 Qazwīnī (ed.), Juwaynī, Ta'rīkh-i jahān-gushā, pp. 110–111, translated by Boyle, The History of the World-Conqueror, pp. 139–140.

107 Atwood, ‘Jochi and Early Western Campaigns’, pp. 36, 54; see also Mirgaleyev, ‘Jochi – the first Ruler of the Ulus’, pp. 73–74.

108 Habībī (ed.), Jūzjānī, Tabaqāt-i Nāstrī, vol. II, pp. 150, 212, (transl.) Raverty, [Jūzjānī], Tabakāt-i Nāstrī, pp. 1101, 1283.

109 Allsen, ‘Prelude to the Western Campaigns’, pp. 12–13.

110 Qazwīnī (ed.), Juwaynī, Ta'rīkh-i jahān-gushā, p. 117, translated Boyle, The History of the World-Conqueror by Juvaini, p. 149; see also Allsen, ‘Prelude to the Western Campaigns’, p. 11.

111 Pow and Liao, ‘Subutai: Sorting Fact from Fiction’, p. 56.

112 Togan, ‘Dzhuchi khan i znachenie osady Khorezma’, pp. 157–159, 164–165.

113 Dafeng, Q. and Jianyi, L., ‘On Some Problems Concerning Jochi's Lifetime’, Central Asiatic Journal 42 (1998), p. 288Google Scholar.

114 Rawshan and Mūsawī (eds.), Jāmiʻ at-tawārīkh, pp. 1033–1035, translated by Thackston, Jami'u’t-tawarikh, pp. 359–360.

115 Dafeng and Jianyi, ‘On Some Problems Concerning Jochi's Lifetime’, pp. 289–290.

116 Jackson, Mongols & the Islamic World, p. 458, n. 17.

117 Tornberg (ed.), Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil fī’l-ta'rīkh, vol. XII, p. 388, translated Richards, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr, vol. III, p. 224.

118 Ibid., p. 389, (transl.) Richards, p. 224.

119 Dörrie, ‘Drei Texte zur Geschichte der Ungarn und Mongolen’, pp. 157–158.

120 Zimonyi, ‘The First Mongol Raids against the Volga-Bulgars’, pp. 197–204.

121 Olbricht, P. and Pinks, E. (eds.), Meng-Та pei-lu und Hei-Та shih-lüeh. Chinesische Gesandtenberichte über die frühen Mongolen 1221 und 1237 (Wiesbaden, 1980)Google Scholar (=Asiatische Forschungen, vol. 56), p. 209.