Culture Change in Greater India

H. G. Quaritch Wales

doi:10.1017/S0035869X00101674

Culture Change in Greater India

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 March 2011

H. G. Quaritch Wales

Article contents

Extract
References

Get access

Rights & Permissions

Extract

“Comment, transplantée au Cambodge, à Java, et dans les autres pays, l'esthétique indienne a-t-elle donné naissance à l'art khmèr, à l'art javanais et aux autres arts hindous d'Extrême Orient ? C'est là, un des problèmes les plus délicats qui s'offre aux archéologues.” In those challenging words, on the last page of his recent valuable work of synthesis, M. Coedès indicates with his usual acumen a main goal of future Greater Indian research. It presents a formidable task indeed, calling for inquiry into the whole problem of culture change in Greater India.

Type: Articles
Information: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , Volume 80 , Issue 1-2 , April 1948 , pp. 2 - 32

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0035869X00101674 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © The Royal Asiatic Society 1948

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

^{page 2 note 1} Histoire Ancienne des États Hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, by Coedès, G., Hanoi, 1944Google Scholar.

^{page 2 note 2} “Recent Malayan Excavations and Some Wider Implications,” JRAs., 1946, pp. 142–9.

^{page 3 note 1} Beylié, De, L'Architecture Hindoue en Extrême-Orient, Paris, 1907, pp. 358 and 393Google Scholar. This opinion recently confirmed by Stern, , Histoire universelle des Arts (L. Beau), IV. Arts Musulmans, Extrême-Orient, Paris, 1939, p. 177Google Scholar.

^{page 3 note 2} Ceylon Journal of Science, Series G, vol. i, pl. 48.

^{page 3 note 3} Ibid., vol. ii, pls. 40, 41.

^{page 3 note 4} Ibid., vol. ii, p. 9.

^{page 3 note 5} Ray, Nihar Ranjan, JGIS., vol. vi, p, 24Google Scholar.

^{page 4 note 1} I.A. & L., vol. x, No. 2.

^{page 4 note 2} JRAs., 1946, pl. xvii.

^{page 4 note 3} BEFEO., xli, 2, pl. xxviii and p. 236.

^{page 4 note 4} Ars Asiatica, vol. xii, pl. x centre.

^{page 4 note 5} MASI., 16, pl. xiiic.

^{page 4 note 6} I.A.& L., vol. ix, No. 1, pl. v (i).

^{page 4 note 7} JRAs., 1946, p. xv.

^{page 4 note 8} JRASMB., vol. xviii, pt. 1, p. 50.

^{page 5 note 1} JRASMB., vol. xviii, pt. 1, pp. 5–10, vol. xx, pt. 1, pp. 3–5, and JRAs., 1946, p. 143.

^{page 5 note 2} Schnitger, , Archæology of Hindoo Sumatra, pl. VIGoogle Scholar.

^{page 5 note 3} Ibid., pl. xi.

^{page 5 note 4} I.A. & L., vol. xi, No. 2, pl. i.

^{page 5 note 5} I.A. & L., vol. x, No. 2, plate iii.

^{page 5 note 6} CJs., vol. i, pl. 49, 1.

^{page 5 note 7} Ibid., pl. 48, 2.

^{page 5 note 8} I.A. & L., vol. xi, No. 1, p. 28 and pl. ii.

^{page 5 note 9} CJs., vol. ii, pt. 2, pls. 48 and 49.

^{page 5 note 10} CJs., vol. ii, pt. 1, pls. 34 and 35.

^{page 5 note 11} Ray, , Brahmanical Gods in Burma, fig. 2 and p. 75Google Scholar.

^{page 5 note 12} Ray, op. cit., p. 27 and fig. 3.

^{page 6 note 1} BEFEO., xli, 2, pls. xxvii, xxix, xxx.

^{page 6 note 2} BEFEO., xli, 2, pp. 233–254 (Hanoi, 1942)Google Scholar.

^{page 6 note 3} Loc. cit., pl. xxx, and I.A. & L., vol. ix, 1, pl. ii.

^{page 6 note 4} BEFEO., xli, 2, pls. xxviii and xxxi.

^{page 6 note 5} JRASMB., vol. xviii, pt. 1, sites 4–9.

^{page 6 note 6} JRAs., 1946, pl. xvii.

^{page 6 note 7} Schnitger, op. cit., pl. x.

^{page 6 note 8} JGIs., vol. iv, pp. 125 sq.

^{page 7 note 1} Grousset, , “L'Art Pala dans l'lnde Exterieure,” Mélanges Linossier, pp. 277–285Google Scholar; Coedès, op. cit., pp. 120, 121.

^{page 7 note 2} MASI., 55.

^{page 7 note 3} Paranavitana, S., “Mahayanism in Ceylon,” CJS., vol. ii, pt. 1Google Scholar.

^{page 7 note 4} MASC., iii.

^{page 7 note 5} Saraswati, S. K. in JG1S., vol. iv, p. 159Google Scholar.

^{page 7 note 6} History of Indian and Indonesian Art, figs. 297, 298, 299.

^{page 7 note 7} Ray, , Sanskrit Buddhism in Burma, p. 91Google Scholar.

^{page 7 note 8} Ray, , Brahmanical Gods in Burma, pl. 4Google Scholar.

^{page 7 note 9} Ibid., pls. 5 and 6.

^{page 7 note 10} Ibid., fig. 29.

^{page 7 note 11} Ibid., p. 40.

^{page 8 note 1} Ray, , “Sculptures and Bronzes from Pagan,” JISOA., vol. 2, No. 1, p. 39Google Scholar.

^{page 8 note 2} Ray, op. cit., pp. 40–1, and “Paintings at Pagan”, JISOA., vol. 6, pp. 146–7.

^{page 8 note 3} See Saraswati, , “Temples of Bengal,” in JISOA., vol. 2, pp. 135–6Google Scholar.

^{page 8 note 4} Duroiselle, , MASI., 56Google Scholar; Saraswati, S. K., “Temples of Pagan,” in JGIS., vol. ix, 1942, No. 1Google Scholar.

^{page 9 note 1} I.A. & L., vol ix, No. 1, pl. vi.

^{page 9 note 2} In Réau's, Histoire Universelle des Arts (IV), p. 248Google Scholar.

^{page 9 note 3} Ars Asiatica, vol. xii, pls. xv–xvii, and JRASMB., vol. xvii, pt. 1, pls. 79–81 and pp. 51, 52, 73.

^{page 9 note 4} I.e. despite the fact that some of the Pāla influence came direct from Northern India, the local genius or spirit in which the work was executed, in Malaya and Sumatra, probably remained largely South Indian, following the long contacts with South India. Local genius and the way in which it is believed to work will be discussed below (see page 13).

^{page 9 note 5} Krom, , Inleiding, vol. 2, p. 425Google Scholar; Schnitger, op. cit., p. 4.

^{page 9 note 6} Schnitger, op. cit., pl. viii.

^{page 10 note 1} Of course the Batak mountain tribes, like hill people elsewhere, remained incompletely Indianized.

^{page 10 note 2} Schnitger, op. cit., pls. xviii–xx.

^{page 10 note 3} Tjandi Boroboedoer, p. 61.

^{page 10 note 4} Indian Antiquary, vol. 30, pl. i, p. 84.

^{page 10 note 5} Schnitger, op. cit., pl. xx.

^{page 10 note 6} de Beylié, op. cit., fig. 219.

^{page 10 note 7} OV., 1930.

^{page 10 note 8} Inleiding, ii, pp. 422–433.

^{page 10 note 9} One of them, Biara Sitokpajan, of probably light construction, since only basement and pillar socles remain, is strikingly similar, as regards plan, measurements, and orientation, to the perhaps considerably earlier Kedah sites 15 and 16, especially the former (compare OV., 1920, p. 65 and pls.; 1925, pp. 11 and 12; 1926, pp. 25 and 26, and particularly the revised plan in OV., 1930, with JRASMB., vol. xviii, pt. 1, fig. 11.

^{page 11 note 1} Schnitger, op. cit., pl. xl.

^{page 11 note 2} Schnitger, op. cit., pl. xxxiv.

^{page 11 note 3} Bhattacharya, Buddhist Iconography, pl. 30.

^{page 11 note 4} Op. cit., p. 26.

^{page 11 note 5} Pelliot, P., Le Fou-nan, p. 88Google Scholar.

^{page 12 note 1} Coedès, op. cit., p. 331.

^{page 12 note 2} Especially Gangoly, O. C., “Relations between Indian and Indonesian Culture,” in JGIS., vol. viiGoogle Scholar.

^{page 12 note 3} “A Hypothesis as to the Origin of Indo-Javanese Art,” Rupam., No. 17.

^{page 12 note 4} “Origine Commune des Architectures Hindoues dans l'Inde et en Extrême-Orient,” Etudes Asiatiques, ii.

^{page 12 note 5} Hindoe-Javaansche Geschiedenis, 1931, p. 129.

^{page 13 note 1} Op. cit., p. 31.

^{page 13 note 2} The Psychological Frontiers of Society, by Kardiner, A. and Linton, R., Columbia, 1945, especially Chapter XIVGoogle Scholar.

^{page 14 note 1} Tjandi Boroboedoer, pp. 21 ff.

^{page 14 note 2} “Vorgeschichtliche Grundlagen der Kolanialindischen Kunst,” in Wiener Beiträge zur Kunst- und Kulturgeschichte Asiens, vol. viii, 1934, pp. 20 and 38Google Scholar.

^{page 14 note 3} Especially “Vorgeschichtliche Grundlagen . . .”; “L'Art prebouddhique de la Chine et de l'Asie du Sud-Est et son influence en Oceanie”, in RAA., tome xi, no. 4; Prehistoric Research in the Netherlands Indies, South-East Asia Institute, New York, 1945Google Scholar.

^{page 14 note 4} Mus, P., “L'Inde vue de l'Est, Cultes indiens et indigènes au Champa,” BEFEO., xxxiii, pp. 367–410Google Scholar; Hocart, A. M., “India and the Pacific,” CJS., i, 2, pp. 61–84Google Scholar.

^{page 14 note 5} First proposed by A. Bastian and later propounded by H. Marchal in Influences étrangères dans l'art et la civilisation Khmèrs, largely quoted by Seidenfaden, E. in JSS., vol. xxx, 1, pp. 51–4.Google Scholar

^{page 15 note 1} I do not suggest that the Older Megalithie—any more than the early Chinese—reached the American mainland as a functioning civilization. I am inclined to agree with the Americanists that the Mayan civilization is essentially an indigenous growth. But I think that they may be wrong in denying or seeking to minimize the importance of isolated Megalithic or early Chinese concepts and motifs that may have reached Central America via the Pacific and then been moulded in accordance with the Mayan genius. It is local genius, not borrowed elements, however numerous, that guides the evolution of a culture.

^{page 16 note 1} “The Date of the Dong-So'n Culture,” in Bull. of the Mus. of Far Eastern Antiquities, No. 42, Stockholm, 1942Google Scholar.

^{page 16 note 2} Though I may have been right in ascribing (JRASMB., xviii, i, p. 62) to Indonesians the actual manufacture of the early stamped pottery found in Johore, I now feel that their designs, like those of the later Dong-So'n drums, must be due to Chinese influence of the Han period. One can hardly doubt this now that we have evidence of actual Chinese settlement of the Han period in the neighbouring islands. Furthermore Professor J. M. Plumer, of the University of Michigan, recently showed me Han sherds that he found near the mouth of the Yangtze which appeared to me indistinguishable from the Johore type.

^{page 16 note 3} Coedès, G., Histoire Ancienne des États Hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, Hanoi, 1944, pp. 41, 42Google Scholar.

^{page 18 note 1} ABIA for 1926 and 1927. OV., 1929.

^{page 18 note 2} “Oudjavaansche Kunst,” in BTLVNI., vol. 79, pp. 323–346, and in Djawa, vol. vii (1927), pp. 177 ff.Google Scholar

^{page 18 note 3} History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, London, 1876, p. 662Google Scholar.

^{page 18 note 4} “Over der Oorsprung van het Javaansche Tooneel,” in BTLVNI., vol. 88.

^{page 18 note 5} While the effect of an influx of late Pāla influence consequent on the downfall of Buddhism in Northern India, is evident enough in some of the sculptures of Djago and Singasari, it did not curb the general renascence.

^{page 19 note 1} de Jong, J. A., “Megalithisehe oudheden op het Jang-hoogland,” in TKNAG., vol. 54, pp. 22–9Google Scholar.

^{page 19 note 2} “Vorgeschichtliche Grundlagen . . .”, pp. 20–3.

^{page 19 note 3} “The Meaning of the Kala-makara Ornament,” I.A. & L., vol. iii, No. 1, 1929Google Scholar.

^{page 19 note 4} “Vorgeschiehtliche Grundlagen . . .”, pp. 38, 39.

^{page 19 note 5} “Ueber Kris-Griffe und ihre mythischen Grundlagen,” OZ., vol. 18, pp. 260–3.

^{page 19 note 6} der Hoop, Van, Catalogue der Praehistorische Verzameling (Batavia), 1941, pl. 63Google Scholar.

^{page 20 note 1} JGJS., vol. iv, 1937, pp. 26–35Google Scholar.

^{page 20 note 2} P. Mus, loc. cit.

^{page 20 note 3} Inventaire descriptif des monuments cams, 1918, ii, p. 237Google Scholar.

^{page 20 note 4} Ibid., pl. clxviii D.

^{page 20 note 5} B. Karigren, loc. cit., pl. 14, 8, and L'Réau's Histoire Universelle des Arts, tome iv, fig. 239, the latter a Han jade showing interlaced serpents.

^{page 20 note 6} Parmentier, op. cit., ii, fig. 42.

^{page 20 note 7} Ibid., ii, fig. 50.

^{page 20 note 8} Ibid., ii, fig. 144.

^{page 20 note 9} Karlgren, loc. cit., pl. 17.

^{page 21 note 1} JSs., vol. xxxi, pt. 1, pp. 45–7, and pt. 2, pp. 179–180.

^{page 21 note 2} JSs., vol. xxxi, pt. 1, p. 42.

^{page 21 note 3} Janse, O., RAA., x, i, p. 44Google Scholar.

^{page 21 note 4} JSs., vol. xxix, ii, p. 160. Other drums have of course been found much further west, but in circumstances suggesting that they were carried there in relatively recent times. However an outlier of the culture from the north-east seems to have reached the Karenni.

^{page 22 note 1} In The Influences of Indian Art, India Society, 1925, p. 64Google Scholar.

^{page 23 note 1} In Réau's, L.Histoire Universelle des Arts, IV, Arts Musulmans — Extrême Orient, p. 193Google Scholar.

^{page 23 note 2} Stutterheim, , “The Meaning of the Kāla-makara Ornament,” I.A. & L., vol. iiiGoogle Scholar.

^{page 23 note 3} “Animaux fantastiques de l'lndochine, de l'lnsulinde et de la Chine,” BEFEO., vol. xxxvi, 1936Google Scholar.

^{page 23 note 4} RAA., vol. viii, pt. 4, p. 246.

^{page 24 note 1} Ph. Stem, loc. cit., pp. 195, 201.

^{page 24 note 2} Parmentier, op. cit., ii, pp. 247, 248.

^{page 25 note 1} Goloubew, in The Influences of Indian Art, London, 1925, p. 119Google Scholar; Stem, op. cit., p. 244.

^{page 25 note 2} M. Stern has proposed an entirely new chronology of Cham art (op. cit., p. 238), but pending seeing his full results I here retain Parmentier's well known classification, which will suffice for our purposes. If Mi-sön A₁ is so comparatively late, as Stem supposes, the appearance with it of the recalcitrant spiral might imply the growing assertiveness of the Dong-So'n genius in favouring spiral motifs, rather than a borrowing from Java as Stem suggests (ibid., p. 240).

^{page 25 note 3} Op. cit., ii, p. 270, fig. 40.

^{page 25 note 4} Op. cit., ii, p. 232.

^{page 25 note 5} Op. cit., ii, p. 237.

^{page 25 note 6} Op. cit., pl. cxxix.

^{page 25 note 7} Ars Asiatica, iv, pl. xxix.

^{page 26 note 1} Stern, Ph., Le Bayon D'Angkor, p. 157Google Scholar.

^{page 26 note 2} G. Coedès, op. cit., p. 227.

^{page 26 note 3} Ibid., p. 128.

^{page 26 note 4} Mus, P., “Angkor in the time of Jayavarman VII,” I.A. & L., vol. xi, 1937, p. 65Google Scholar.

^{page 27 note 1} Stern, Ph. in Réau's Histoire Universelle des Arts (IV), p. 231Google Scholar.

^{page 27 note 2} Ibid., p. 224.

^{page 27 note 3} Parmentier, , L'Art Khmer Primitif, p. 277Google Scholar.

^{page 28 note 1} Stern, in Réau's Histoire Universelle des Arts (IV), pp. 220, 224, 235Google Scholar.

^{page 29 note 1} Ibid., p. 179.

^{page 30 note 1} ABIA., 1934, p. 43.

Article contents

Culture Change in Greater India

Extract

Access options

References

Save article to Kindle

Save article to Dropbox

Save article to Google Drive

Reply to: Submit a response

Your details

You have entered the maximum number of contributors

Conflicting interests