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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 March 2011
In a paper printed in the Journal of this Society in July, 1888, I adduced reasons for believing that there existed adequate evidence to prove the truth of the following statements with regard to the early history of Northern India, (1) That Northern India was peopled by Kolarian and Dravidian tribes long before the Aryans came into the country. (2) Of the two races who preceded the Aryans, the Kolarians were the first immigrants. (3) The Dravidians, when they assumed the government of countries originally peopled by Kolarian tribes, retained the village communities established by their predecessors, but reformed the village system. They made each separate village, and each province formed by a union of villages, more dependent on the central authority than they were under the Kolarian form of government. (4) Under the Dravidian rule, all public offices, beginning with the headships of villages, were filled by nominees appointed by the State instead of being elective as among the Kolarians. (5) The Dravidians set apart lands appropriated to the public service in every village, required the tenants to cultivate these public lands, and store their produce in the royal and provincial granaries; this being the form in which the earliest taxes were paid. (6) They also in the Dravidian villages made every man and woman bear his or her share in contributing to the efficiency of the government, but this process was not followed out in the same completeness in Kolarian villages, where the people were not so ready as the Dravidian races to submit to the same strict discipline, to which the Dravidians had been accustomed long before they entered India.
page 188 note 1 Chota Nāgpur, its People and Resources, Asiatic Quarterly Review, April, 1887; and Village Communities in India, Journal of the Society of Arts, May 6, 1887.
page 189 note 1 Rigv. iv. 30, 18.
page 190 note 1 Rigv. vi. 61, 1.
page 191 note 1 Rigv. ii. 19, 6; i. 26, 3; iv. 30, 20; vi. 26, 5, and many other places.
page 191 note 2 Rigv. ix. 61, 1.
page 191 note 3 Rigv. vii. 19, 8. The term Atithigva is used directly to mean the Tṛtsu, Rigv. i. 130, 7, and occurs in many other places in connexion with the victories over the Sambara.
page 191 note 4 Rigv. vii. 18, 13.
page 191 note 5 Manu, ii. 17.
page 192 note 1 Rigv. viii. 4, 1 and 7; viii. 7, 18.
page 192 note 2 Manu, 11, 19.
page 192 note 3 Arrian, Indika, chap. viii.
page 192 note 4 Mahābhārata, Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xiv. p. 47. This and all other citations from the Mahābhārata in this paper are made from Pertāp Chundur Roy's translation, published in England by Williams & Norgate.
page 192 note 5 Manu, vii. 193.
page 192 note 6 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, sect, lxxxii. to lxxxv.
page 193 note 1 Udyoga (Samyodyoga) Parva, sect. viii. to xvii.
page 194 note 1 We find Vidura speaking to Yudishthira in the Mleccha language, Ādi (Jatu-Griha) Parva, clxvii. p. 433, and in Vedio times all people except Aryans or those taught by Aryans spoke their own languages. Non-Aryans are called Mṛdhravāc, a term which implies speaking a foreign language.
page 194 note 2 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, sects, lxxx-clvi.
page 195 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxviii. p. 377.
page 195 note 2 Janaka, king of Videha, is said to have been conquered by Bhīma, but this is evidently a later interpolation, as Videha is mentioned as being conquered directly after the southern Mallas of Mallarāshtra, or Mālava, and before the Sākas who lived close to the Mālava country (Sabha Digvijaya Parva, p. 86).
page 196 note 1 Vana (Draupadi-harana) Parva, cclxiv p. 782.
page 196 note 2 See the conversation of Yudishthira with the Yaksha (Vana (Aranya) Parva, cccxii. and many other places).
page 196 note 3 Vana (Ajagara) Parva, ccxxx. p. 531.
page 197 note 1 Ādi Parva, i. p. 4.
page 197 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cv. p. 318.
page 197 note 3 Rigv. vii. 18. 21.
page 197 note 4 Rigv. vii. 18. 6.
page 197 note 5 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cv. and cvi. pp. 319 to 323.
page 197 note 6 Chitrangada was the snake god, the dominant of the moon. See Appendix B. His death without heirs, and his being succeeded by a dynasty of which the, Rishi Vyāsa was the real father, signifies the substitution of Aryan sun-worship for that of the Lunar and snake-worshipping races. This was carried out, as will be shown in the sequel, under the guidance of the Aryan Brahmins, the Matsya or Bhārata, and the Gandhāri tribes, who led the Panchāla confederacy.
page 197 note 6 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxiii. and cxxiv. pp. 359 to 366.
page 198 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parya, cxi p. 366.
page 198 note 2 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parya, xiv. p. 45.
page 198 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxviii. p. 377.
page 198 note 4 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxiv. p. 366.
page 198 note 6 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 180.
page 199 note 1 The Suvarṇa, i.e. the class (varṇa) of the Sus or Sans, i.e. the traders. The name Sau is still preserved in Saudāgur, a merchant, and Saukar, one who does a Sau's or merchant's business. Their first move eastward from Pātāla was into the country called by their name Saurashtra, the kingdom of the Saus, the modern Guzerāt.
page 200 note 1 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 52Google Scholar, thinks that Ayas means brass, while Roth and Grassmann both believe it to be iron. Considering that iron ore is exceedingly common in all the rocky parts of India, and copper, tin, and zinc rare, it is probable that iron was smelted long before the compound metals were used.
page 201 note 1 Appaṇṇaka Jātaka and Vaṇṇapatha Jātaka; Fausböll, vol. i. pp. 98 to 103, and 107 to 109; Buddhist Birth Stories translated by Rhys Davids, vol. i. pp. 138 to 145, and 174 to 179.
page 201 note 2 Strabo, xv. i. 47–62. McCrindle's Ancient India, pp. 83–89.
page 202 note 1 Sabha (Lokapala Sabhakhyana) Parva, v. p. 17.
page 203 note 1 1 Kings x. 22.
page 203 note 2 Cunningham, , Ancient Geography of India, pp. 497–9 and 561Google Scholar.
page 203 note 3 1 Kings ix. 28; 2 Chron. viii. 18, where the amount is 450 talents.
page 204 note 1 I have reckoned ten talents at about the value in round numbers of the Babylonian talent, which was doubtless the standard used by the Jewish reckoners. This, according to Herod. iii. 89, was to the Attic or Euboic talent, as 7 to 6. The Attic talent is considered to represent £243 15s. of our money, and I have taken the Babylonian talent at about £209. See Liddell and Scott, s.v. τλαντον.
page 204 note 2 1 Kings x. 22.
page 204 note 3 Sayce, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, pp. 18 and 137.
page 205 note 1 India and the West in Old Days, by Prof. A. Weber, translated by Mrs. Hawtrey, p. 3, note.
page 205 note 2 Rawlinson, , Sixth Oriental Monarchy, p. 33Google Scholar.
page 205 note 3 Sayce, , Hibbert Lectures for 1887, p. 138Google Scholar.
page 205 note 4 Ex. xxviii. 20. There are three names of stones in this passage, Tarshish, Shoham, and Jashpheh, all of which are translated Beryl by different authors. The first is translated Beryl in the Authorised English version, the second in the Septuagint, and the third in the Vulgate. Gesenius s.v. translates Tarshish as Topaz. Kiel as a brilliant stone of a golden colour like what is now called chrysolite, which is pale green with a double refraction. It is probable that all these three stones came from India, as beryls, topazes, and chrysolite are all found there.
page 205 note 5 Chullavagga, v. 91, translated by Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xx. p. 82.
page 205 note 6 India and the West in Old Days, p. 4.
page 205 note 6 Liddell and Scott, s.v. πυζα.
page 206 note 1 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 239Google Scholar.
page 206 note 2 India and the West in Old Days, p. 3.
page 206 note 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, new edition, art. Egypt, p. 736, vol. vii.
page 206 note 4 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, cxx. p. 371.
page 206 note 5 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxvi. p. 79. Prāgjyotisha or the Eastern Jyotisha was perhaps so called because it was on the east of the Gulf of Kambay, and lay to the east of the settlements of the Bhojas of Dwāraka in Kāthiāwāṛ, who gave the name. This name is clearly a Sanskrit name, and not one given by the people whom Bhagadhatta ruled, who were, as will be shown later on, principally of Kolarian origin.
page 207 note 1 Cunningham, , Ancient Geography of India, p. 289Google Scholar.
page 207 note 2 Arrian, Periplus, chap. 28, 39. Iνδικòν μλαν is translated Indigo in the notes to Müller's edition of the Periplus.
page 207 note 3 Manual of Geology of India, Medlicott and Blanford, pp. 46 to 57.
page 207 note 4 Arrian, Periplus, chap. 48.
page 208 note 1 Arrian, Periplus, chap. 41.
page 208 note 2 Arrian, Periplus, chap. 49.
page 208 note 3 Pliny, Hist. Nat., vi. 23. The country in which these silver mines were situated must have heen that of Guzerāt and the eastern slope of the Aravalli range. The silver now found there is always mixed with lead in the proportion of from ten to twenty or more ounces of silver to the ton of lead. The people who worked these mines for silver in ancient times must have heen most intelligent and accomplished miners and mineralogists to be able to discover and apply the difficult process of separating the silver from the lead. This part of the country has only been cursorily examined by the Geological Survey, and the greater part of it is marked blank and unexplored in the Geological Survey Map. Among the mines mentioned in Medlicott and Blanford's Economic Geology of India the largest is that on the Taragurh hill in Ajmir, the country known to the authors of the Mahābhārata as that of Virāta or Matsya (Economic Geology, chap. vi. p. 299). There are also other ancient mines in Ulwar, Jawur in Udaipur, and the Panchmahal district in Guzerāt. At Joga, in the Hoshungabad district of the Central Provinces, south of the Nerbudda, near the Sonbhudra, or Golden river, there is an old mine of argentiferous lead (galena) known as the Chandi-Khadan, or silver mine. None of these mines are worked now, but the name of “silver-mine” shows the purpose for which they were formerly used. There is also a mine mentioned in Hunter's Gazetteer, vol. vi. p. 142, at Jaora, in the Western Malwa Agency, and others are found in Bundelkund. Gold, in early times, must have chiefly come from Kashmir, though the mines in the Wainad and Mysore were also worked.
page 208 note 4 India and the West in Old Days, p. 12. I have reckoned the sestertium or 1000 sesterces at £8 17s. 1d. Prof. Weber attributes the extension of the trade between Alexandria and India to the discovery by Hippalus under Augustus of the trade winds, but these must have been known centuries before to the old Phœnician and Accadian navigators.
page 209 note 1 Sabha (Dyuta) Parva, li. p. 141. The country which sent its produce westward was thus comprised in the divisions of the Sanskrit geographers, called Sindhu, Anarta, Avanti and Panchāla.
page 209 note 2 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, cxv. to cxvii.
page 210 note 1 Rigv. i. 33. 8; Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, p. 53.
page 210 note 2 Tusser silk, called by him Kausēya, is mentioned by Hiouen Tsiang as worn constantly by the people of the Northern and Southern Panjab. Beal's Buddhist Records of the Western World, vol. i. pp. 75, 165, and 178. The name Kausēya for tusser silk made from the wild cocoons found in the forest, and the similarity of the names, seems to show that the Kāsāyaṁ, or yellow robes of the Buddhist monks, were originally woven from the tusser or forest silk. Unbleached tusser is of the reddish yellow colour which is prescribed for these robes.
page 210 note 3 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxvi. p. 79.
page 211 note 1 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xiv. p. 48.
page 211 note 2 Sabha (Jarasandha-badha) Parva, xxii. p. 69. Hansa is here called Kuṣika, and the Kuṣikas were the tribe to whom Benares of Kāṣi belonged.
page 211 note 3 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xiv. pp. 46–48.
page 211 note 4 Sabha (Ṣiṣupala-badha) Parva, xlv. p. 122.
page 211 note 5 Sabha (Jarasandha-badha) Parva, xxiii. pp. 70–73.
page 212 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 194.
page 212 note 2 Rigv. vii. 18, 19.
page 212 note 3 The river flowing through the territory of which Ṣākala, the Madra capital, was the chief town, is still called Ajak, or Ayak.
page 212 note 4 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxv. p. 191.
page 212 note 5 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxxv. to lxxxv. pp. 228 to 260.
page 213 note 1 Adi (Sambhava) Parva, xcv. p. 283.
page 213 note 2 Rigv. i. 108, 8. This hymn is said to have been written by Kutsa the Puru. Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 122Google Scholar.
page 214 note 1 Rigv. i. 112. 23; vii. 19. 2; viii. 1. 2.
Page 214 Note 2 Rigv. vi. 20. 10; i. 174. 2.
page 214 note 3 Rigv. ii. 19. 6.
page 214 note 4 Rigv. vi. 20. 5; vi. 31. 3; iv. 16. 10–12.
page 214 note 5 Rigv. i. 33. 14 and 15; vi. 26. 4; x. 49. 4.
page 214 note 6 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, pp. 137–139.
page 214 note 7 See for instance the raid by the Trigarta into the Matsya country to seize their cattle. Virāta (Goharana) Parva, xxv. to lxvi. pp. 65 to 168.
page 215 note 1 Rigv. i. 33. 15.
page 215 note 2 Rigv. vi. 20. 8.
page 215 note 3 The Daṣoni are in Atharva Veda 10. 4. 4, called powerful serpents, Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 95Google Scholar.
page 215 note 4 Vishṇu Purāṇa, bk. iv.
page 215 note 5 Rigv. viii. 1. 11.
page 215 note 6 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvi. p. 193.
page 215 note 7 Arrian, Indika, chap. i.
page 215 note 8 Vivien de St.-Martin, Etude sur la Géographie Grecque et Latine de 1'Inde, pp. 376–8.
page 215 note 9 Beal, Records of the Western World, vol. i. p. 13.
page 216 note 1 Rigv. vii. 18. 13.
page 216 note 2 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 114Google Scholar.
page 216 note 3 India and the West in Old Days, by Prof. A. Weber, p. 6 note.
page 217 note 1 Rigv. viii. 19, 32 and 36; i. 112, 14.
page 217 note 2 Rigv. vii. 19, 3.
page 217 note 3 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 107Google Scholar, translates the word vadhu “maidens,” but cattle is much the most probable translation. The bard would not send Çyava to bring him maidens.
page 217 note 4 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 50. I shall show reasons in another part of this paper for doubting that Hashti or Hashtinagur means the eight cities. I believe it means the city of Ashti, Ashti being, as I shall show, pp. 307, 308, the sun.
page 217 note 5 Arrian, Anabasis, iv, 22.
page 218 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, xcv. p. 284.
page 218 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxxiii. p. 375.
page 218 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, p. 140.
page 218 note 4 Virāta (Goharana) Parva, xxv. p. 65, Udyoga (Bhagavatyana) Parva, cxlvi. p. 428.
page 219 note 1 Beal, Records of the Western World, vol. i. p. 166.
page 220 note 1 Rigv. vii. 19, 3. The name Trāsadasyu is generally translated as meaning he who makes his foes to tremble, but I would submit that Trāsa the Dasyu is much more probably the correct translation. Be was to the Aryans the great Dasyu and their especial ally. His name, as he was not an Aryan, would not have had any meaning in Sanskrit, and just as the Greeks called the prince of the Takkas Taxilus, the Aryans would haye called the great northern king the Dasyu, the representative of the native races.
page 220 note 2 For these genealogies see Appendix A.
page 220 note 3 Rigv. xiii. 22, 7; vi. 46, 8.
page 220 note 4 Rigv. viii. 74, 4 and 15.
page 220 note 5 Rigv. viii. 46, 32.
page 221 note 1 See Genealogies in Appendix A.
page 221 note 2 Rigv. viii. 51. 1.
page 221 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, xciv. p. 280.
page 222 note 1 Rigv. vii. 19, 3.
page 222 note 2 Rigv. vii. 18, 6.
page 222 note 3 Rigv. vii. 18, 12; Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 127Google Scholar.
page 222 note 4 Rigv. vii. 18, 19.
page 222 note 5 Rigv. vii. 18.
page 222 note 6 Rigv. vii. 83.
page 222 note 7 Roth, zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Veda, p. 129.
page 223 note 1 Indra is throughout the Rigveda the warrior-god, and the victors in every contest, whether Aryans or non-Aryans, ascribe their success to Indra. Instances of this will be given further on in discussing the questions connected with religion.
page 223 note 2 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 135Google Scholar.
page 224 note 1 Rigv. viii. 46. 21 and 24. A king called Pṛthuṣravasa is named in the Mahābhārata, Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, as the father of Kāmā, queen of Ayuta-Nayi, one of the Bharata. See Appendix A., No. 11, Genealogy II.
page 224 note 2 Rigv. vi. 27. 8.
page 224 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxl. pp. 408 to 413, and many other places.
page 224 note 4 Rigv. vii. 18. 7.
page 224 note 5 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 434Google Scholar.
page 224 note 6 This means that it was conquered by the Gandhāri, for it was originally a city of the Malli. The name Kasyapura proves, as I shall show later on when I come to speak of the Gandhāri, that this tribe had acquired sufficient influence and power there to call the city of the Malli by their own name; but this probably took place long after the battle of the ten kings. At the time of that battle the Paktha or Paktues were probably the same people as the Chitraratha of the Rigveda, and lived in the Northern Panchāla country, close to the Tṛtsus.
page 224 note 7 Weber, India and the West in Old Days, p. 6.
page 224 note 8 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 232; Alberuni's India, edited and translated by Prof. E. Sachau, chap. xxix. vol. i. p. 298.
page 225 note 1 In the Brihat Sanhita, 22. 23, they are spoken of as Asmaka, and are mentioned as living next to the Madras (translation by Prof. Kern, J.R.A.S. Vol. V. p. 85).
page 226 note 1 Herod. 101. 93.
page 226 note 2 Rigv. 6. 46.
page 226 note 3 Prof. Weber, A., India and the West in Old Days, p. 20Google Scholar.
page 226 note 4 Liddell and Scott, Πρσης.
page 228 note 1 Sakra was most probably the warrior god of the Sakas, Scythians or Bhojas, worshipped under the symbol of the sword. He became amalgamated with Indra, the Aryan god of the clouds and rain.
page 228 note 2 Rigv. iv. 30. 18.
page 228 note 3 Rigv. vi. 27. 5.
page 228 note 4 Rigv. viii. 3. 9.
page 229 note 1 Rigv. viii. 6. 18.
page 229 note 2 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 103Google Scholar.
page 230 note 1 Rigv. vii. 33. 1 to 6.
page 230 note 2 Rigv. vii. 18.
page 230 note 3 Roth, Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Veda, p. 95.
page 231 note 1 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xiv. pp. 46 and 47.
page 231 note 2 Arrian Indika, chap. xvii.
page 231 note 3 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 431Google Scholar.
page 232 note 1 Rigv. x. 59. 10; Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 130Google Scholar.
page 232 note 2 Udyoga (Bhagavatyana) Parva, cxvii. p. 344.
page 232 note 3 Strabo, xv. 8.
page 232 note 4 Rigv. iii. 33.
page 233 note 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 137.
page 233 note 2 Rigv. vii. 18. 5.
page 233 note 3 Rigv. vii. 18. 6. Roth, Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Veda, p. 95
page 233 note 4 Roth, following the Sanskrit commentators, makes Pṛthivi to he the female god of the space between the heaven and earth, but translates the word as I have given it in the text. Max Müller (Lectures on the Science of Language, second series, p. 432, ed. 1864) quotes Rigv. i. 131. 1, where both the Great Pṛthivi and Dyu are said to have bowed before Indra. Zimmer, (Altindisches Leben, p. 134)Google Scholar shows that in the Atharvaveda, the origin of agriculture is ascribed to Pṛthu, and that in the Ṣatupatha and Taittareya Brāhmaṇas he is called the first king of the earth. It appears to me that the god of the powerful tribe of the Pṛthus is the original meaning of the expression and not the metaphysical interpretations of Brahmin commentators. I shall show that the Panchāla country of the Pārthas was the principal centre of Ṣiva-worship, and we know its northern province was called Ahikshetra (the field of snakes), and therefore the lord of the earth would be a right translation of an expression which meant the god of the earth-worshippers. The expression is exactly similar to those so frequently found in the Bible.
page 234 note 1 Rigv. vii. 18. 13.
page 234 note 2 Rigv. vii. 18. 19.
page 235 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxl. p. 408.
page 235 note 2 Rigv. x. 98. 27.
page 235 note 3 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, places the capital of Mahākosala at Chanda, in the District of that name in the Central Provinces, but the kingdom extended far to the east of Chanda to the borders of Orissa, and is coterminous with the ancient Gondwana. The capitals have been successively placed at Mandla, Chanda, and Rutunpore in the Belaspore district.
page 236 note 1 Kaur chiefs hold the states of Mahtin, Ooprora, Korha, and I think Kowurdha also.
page 237 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxx. and cxxxi. pp. 380–385.
page 237 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxxiv. pp. 393–395.
page 237 note 3 He died about 1572 A.D.
page 237 note 4 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 103Google Scholar.
page 238 note 1 Ādi (Astika) Parva, lvii. p. 157.
page 238 note 2 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxviii. p. 81.
page 238 note 3 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xiv. p. 45.
page 239 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxxv. p. 260.
page 240 note 1 Rigv. vii. 18. 13.
page 240 note 2 Rigv. viii. 74. 4.
page 240 note 3 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 185.
page 240 note 4 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 149.
page 240 note 5 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 191.
page 241 note 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 216.
page 241 note 2 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 215.
page 241 note 3 Baudhāyana, i. 1. 14.
page 241 note 4 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxiii. p. 173.
page 242 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 178.
page 242 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxi. p. 201.
page 242 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxviii. p. 377.
page 243 note 1 Ādi (Astika) Parva, lvii. p. 157.
page 243 note 2 Abhidhānappadīpikā, 16, quoted by Childers, s.v. Vāsudevo.
page 243 note 4 Ādi (Subhadra-harana) Parva, ccxxi. to ccxxiii. pp. 603–613.
page 243 note 3 Virāta (Pāndava Praveça) Parva, ii. p 3.
page 243 note 5 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvi. p. 191. Vana (Aranyaka) Parva, iii. p. 14.
page 244 note 1 In the Buddhist cosmogony a special heaven is assigned to the Devas or Angels.
page 244 note 2 Rigv. viii. 4. 1 and 7; viii. 7. 18.
page 244 note 4 Rigv. iv. 30. 17 and 18.
page 245 note 1 Rigv. ix 61. 1; vii. 19. 8.
page 245 note 2 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 245.
page 245 note 3 Sabha (Dyuta) Parva, lii. p. 145.
page 245 note 4 Rigv. vi. 27. 5–8.
page 246 note 1 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 124Google Scholar.
page 246 note 2 Rigv. viii. 5. 37.
page 247 note 1 India and the West in Old Days, p. 5.
page 248 note 1 Sabha (Kriya) Parva, iv. p. 9.
page 248 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxli. p. 15.
page 248 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 194.
page 248 note 4 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xiv. p. 45.
page 249 note 1 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxvi. p. 79.
page 249 note 2 Sabha (Dyuta) Parva, li. p. 142.
page 249 note 3 Udyoga (Samyodyoga) Parva, p. 43.
page 249 note 4 Sabha (Kriya) Parva, p. 9.
page 249 note 5 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxxii. p. 94.
page 249 note 6 Laws of Mauu, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxv. Bühler's translation, p. cxiv.
page 250 note 1 India and the West in Old Days, p. 18.
page 250 note 2 Hardy, , Manual of Buddhism, p. 536Google Scholar.
page 250 note 3 Burnes' Travels in Bokhara, vol. iii. p. 114; Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 237.
page 250 note 4 Bhishma Parva, v. 352.
page 250 note 5 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxxi. p. 87.
page 251 note 1 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxx. p. 86.
page 251 note 2 Vana (Tirthayatra) Parva, cxxx. p. 392.
page 251 note 3 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxx. p. 85.
page 251 note 4 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxxii. p. 215.
page 251 note 5 Virātā (Pandava Pravesa) Parva, i. p. 2.
page 251 note 6 Original Inhabitants of Bhāratavarsha, by Prof. G. Oppert, chap. iii. published in Madras Journal of Literature and Science, 1888.
page 251 note 7 The root of the name was probably Mon. The Talaings, or Mons, of Pegu, call themselves Mon, and they are of the same race as the Indian Mundas. Mason (Mason's, Burma, pp 130–134Google Scholar) shows that the Mon language has a radical affinity with the Kol or Munda tongue. He says, “The first six numerals, the personal pronouns, the words for several members of the body, and many objects of nature, are unquestionably of the same origin.” See the whole question fully discussed in Fytche's, Burma Past and Present, vol i. pp. 324–326Google Scholar.
page 252 note 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 233; India and the West in Old Days, by. Prof A. Weber, p. 19.
page 253 note 1 The country of the hills on the Western Ghats, anciently called the Malaya Mountains.
page 253 note 2 Ādi (Astika) Parva, xxvii.–xxix. pp. 94–97.
page 254 note 1 Rigv. i. 92. 4.
page 254 note 2 Rigv. x. 146; Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 288Google Scholar.
page 254 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxiii. p. 164.
page 254 note 4 Vana (Indralokagamana) Parva, p. 139.
page 255 note 1 Arrian, Indika, chap. vii.
page 256 note 1 Rigv. x. 62. 11.
page 256 note 2 Rigv. x. 60; Zimmer, , Altindisehes Leben, p. 130Google Scholar.
page 256 note 3 Rockhill's Life of Buddha, p. 11 (Trübner's Oriental Series).
page 256 note 4 Ādi (Astika) Parva, xliv. p. 131.
page 256 note 5 Udyoga (Bhagavatyana) Parva, xcviii. pp. 304, 305, also cii. pp. 311, 312.
page 257 note 1 See Suvarna-Vāmana above.
page 257 note 2 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xiv. p. 45.
page 258 note 1 Beal, Records of the Western World, vol. ii. p. 201.
page 258 note 2 Vishnu Purāna, bk. ii. 8.
page 258 note 3 Rigv. viii. 3. 19, Arbuda means a snake.
page 258 note 4 Pliny, Nat. Hist, vi 22. 6.
page 258 note 5 Ādi (Astika) Parva, xviii. pp. 79–81.
page 259 note 1 Hunter's Gazetteer, vol. xi. p. 4, s.v. Pālitāna.
page 259 note 2 Hunter's Gazetteer, vol. v. p. 86, s.v. Girnar.
page 260 note 1 Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxii. pp. xxiii–xxx.
page 260 note 2 Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxii. p. xxx.
page 260 note 3 Kalpa Sutra, sect. 110; Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxii. pp. 256, 257, also preface p. xv.
page 260 note 4 Mahāvagga, vi. 31. 2, Rhys Davids and Oldenburg's translation, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xvii. p. 109.
page 261 note 1 Kalpa Sutra, 128; Sacred Books of the East, p. 266, note 1.
page 261 note 2 Sacred Books of the East, vol. xix. p. 278.
page 261 note 3 In a note to v. 1788 of the translation of the Chinese Life of the Buddha, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xix. p. 268, Mr. Beal refers to Hardy's Manual of Buddhism, p. 282 (it is p, 291 in the 2nd edition), where the king of the Licchavis is called Mahā-lī, which he thinks means the great lion, and refers to tne Hebrew layish, a strong lion. This lī certainly appears to be part of the root of Licchavi, and it confirms the argument I have stated as to the origin of the name Licchavi. As examples of the change of the hard guttural kh into ch, the Pāli words akkhi and acchi, the eye, and ikko and accho, a bear, may be cited. In Alberuni's India, Sachau's translation, chap. xix. vol. i. p. 220, I find Li-yaya given as a Hindoo synonym for the sign of the Zodiac called Siṃha, the lion. This is a further proof that Li meant lion.
page 262 note 1 Sayce, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, p. 122.
page 262 note 2 Kalpa Sutra, 128; Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxii. p. 266.
page 263 note 1 Rigv. x. 63. 1; Ādi (Samhhava) Parva, xcv. p. 282.
page 263 note 2 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 128Google Scholar.
page 264 note 1 The seven slain are the seven snake-gods, see p. 297. Also the seven sons of Dānu. Rigv. x. 120. 6, whom Indra slew.
page 264 note 2 Udyoga (Samyodyoga) Parva, viii. to xvii. pp. 18–42.
page 264 note 3 Vana (Tirtha Yatra) Parva, cxv. p. 356.
page 264 note 4 Or the name may be derived from Ea or Hea, the great snake god of the earlier Accads, who was the creator of the (Australioid or) black-headed race of Eridu, the old non-Semitic population of Assyria. See Sayce, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, pp. 134, 142; also see Appendix B.
page 265 note 1 II. Kings xviii. 4.
page 265 note 2 The name Asura and Dānava commonly used in the Mahābhārata to denote the snake races may probably come from the same source, Asura from Assur, the god of the Accads (Sayce, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, pp. 122–3), and Dānava from the sons of Danu (the strong), daughter of Daksha, the Accad root dan, strong (Sayce, Assyrian Grammar, p. 114).
page 265 note 3 SirCunningham, A., Ancient Geography of India, p. 408Google Scholar, shows that Northern Kosala is the country called Ganḍa (Gonda) in the Matsya, Linga and Kūrma Purānas as Sravasti the capital is there said to be in Ganḍa, i.e. Gonda. This is additional evidence proving that the Gonds or Haihayas were the original rulers of both the Kosalas; Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxv. p. 186.
page 266 note 1 But the district in which Benares was situated was that south of the Sarju or Ghagra, called Bunodha or the forest (bun) tract, and was, as will be shown later on, more especially the country of the Burs or Bhāratas. See Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 408.
page 266 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cv. p. 320.
page 266 note 3 Udyoga (Bhagavatyana) Parva, cv. to clxxii.; see especially p. 350.
page 266 note 4 Udyoga (Bhagavatyana) Parva, cxx. p. 350; Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, lxxxiv. p. 265; Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, xcv. p. 304.
page 266 note 5 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, xcv p. 304.
page 267 note 1 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, cxvi. and cxvii. pp. 358 to 362.
page 267 note 2 Chullavagga, v. 6. The four royal snake races are (1) Virūpakkas, (3) Erāpatha, (3) Chabyāputtas, (4) Kanhāgotamakas.
page 267 note 3 We have seen that the Purushnī was the boundary of the Puru kingdom. Can the name have anything to do with Puru, and does it mean the river of the Purus? It was, when called the Irāvata, probably the northern boundary of the Irāvata race, separating them from the Kurus and Takshakas or Takkas.
page 267 note 4 Rigv. vii. 6. 3.
page 268 note 1 Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, vol. i. p. 137 note.
page 268 note 2 They are the Maccokalingæ of Pliny, Hist. Nat. vi. 21, whom Vivien de St.-Martin has identified with the Mugheyas of Magadha, and the Mughs of the Eastern Bengal sea-board. They are doubtless the same people who are so well known to North Behar magistrates as the Mugheya Domes.
page 268 note 3 These were the kings known in Sanskrit literature as Chakravarta or universal Rajas. The type of the chakra or wheel, here used to represent the model or ideal kingdom, gives an admirable picture of the typical Dravidian state, in which the king lived in the centre, and the subordinate provinces or kingdoms, like the spokes of the wheel, surrounded the centre from which they derived their motion.
page 269 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 194.
page 269 note 2 Udyoga (Bhagavatyana) Parva, cxvii. p. 344.
page 269 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxiii. p. 173.
page 270 note 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, pp. 391–392.
page 270 note 2 Subha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxxi. p. 87.
page 270 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvi. pp. 192–193.
page 270 note 4 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvi. p. 186.
page 270 note 5 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 197.
page 270 note 6 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, pp. 393–395.
page 271 note 1 Udyoga (Bhagavatyana) Parva, cii. p. 312. Her father was Vāmana, an Irāvata king.
page 271 note 2 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 293.
page 272 note 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, pp. 157–158.
page 272 note 2 Vana (Draupadiharana) Parva, cclxiv. p. 782.
page 272 note 3 Arrian, Periplus, chap. 38.
page 273 note 1 Vana (Kundalāharana) Parva, cccvii. p. 907. This is considered by Lassen to be one of the western tributaries of the Chambal.
page 273 note 2 Buddhist Birth Stories, translated by Rhys Davids, No. 23, p. 245.
page 274 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 197.
page 274 note 2 Ancestors were probably first worshipped partly from motives of affection, but one very potent cause was also the fear of their ghosts. The aboriginal tribes now practise elaborate ceremonies to remove the ghosts of their dead from their former abodes. It is on this account probably that the Dravidian tribes throw the knee and elbow bones of their dead into the nearest river once a year, keeping them hanging up together meanwhile, so that they may forget the places where they once lived.
page 274 note 3 Sabha (Digvijayā) Parva, xxxi. 89 to 91.
page 275 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, xcv. p. 284. Similar expressions occur in several other places.
page 275 note 2 Arrian, Indika, viii.
page 275 note 3 By this term I mean Sakko or Sakra, whom I have formerly suggested to be the Scythian war god worshipped under the symbol of the sword, which all Rajput tribes still worship.
page 275 note 4 The Zendavesta clearly shows that there was a large snake-worshipping population in Media, and the sun-worshippers who lived among them were not the only people who emigrated into India.
page 276 note 1 The Ikshvākus, i.e. the sons of the Iksha, the sugar cane, are probably the united confederacy of the Suvarna and Saka Bhojas. Alberuni's India. Sachau's edition, vol. i. chap. xxi. p. 235, quotes from the Matsya and Vishnu Purāṇas the names of the continents. In the Matsya Purāṇa Ṣākadwīpa, or the continent of the Ṣākas, is said to have a sea of milk (kshīrodaka). The same continent is called Plaksha dwīpa in the Vishnu Purāṇa, and its sea is said to he of Iksha, the sugar cane. Plaksha is the sacred tree at Prāyag, the junction of the Jumna and Ganges (Mahābhārata, Vana Tirtha-Yatra Parva, cxxix. p. 390). It is the Pakur (Ficus infectoria), one of the trees belonging to the same family as the Bur or Banyan tree. The story in the Bhavishya Purāṇa before alluded to, telling how Ṣamba, son of Krishna, brought priests of the sun from Ṣākadwīpa, shows that it means the Persian and Assyrian country, and therefore the Purāṇa traditions show that both the cattle herdsmen, the sons of milk, and the sons of the Ikshu, or sugar cane, came from Assyria, and the connection between the Ikshvāku and the Kolarian races is shown by introduction of the Plaksha, one of the Bur trees, which will be shown to be the distinctive tree of the Kolarians.
page 276 note 3 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, cxvi.–cxvii. pp. 358–362.
page 277 note 1 Vana (Kandalaharana) Parva, cccv.–cccviii. pp. 901–907.
page 277 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxi. pp. 330–331.
page 277 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxxviii. and cxxxix. pp. 405 and 406.
page 277 note 4 The name Karna-Suvarṇa being derived from the Karṇa, the mixed race who worshipped the sun god under the name Karṇa, and the Suvarṇa.
page 277 note 5 Asiatic Researches, vol. i. art. iii. p. 62.
page 277 note 6 Manu, x. 44.
page 278 note 1 Pliny, Hist. Nat. vi. 22.
page 278 note 2 Sabha (Raja Suyarambha) Parva, xiv. p. 4, and many other places.
page 278 note 3 Madhu is spirit made from the Mahowa tree (Bassia latifolia).
page 278 note 4 Vana (Draupadihapurana) Parva, cclxiv. p. 782.
page 278 note 5 Hardy's Manual of Buddhism, p. 318.
page 279 note 1 Sir H. Elliot, Supplementary Glossary N.W.P. art. Beis, pp. 58–60.
page 275 note 2 Ādi Parva, i. p. 4.
Page 280 note 1 Eugenia Jambolana.
page 280 note 2 Faushöll, Jātaka, vol. i. p. 43, sect. 245.
page 280 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxv. p. 185.
page 280 note 4 Elliot's Supplementary Glossary N.W.P. art. Bhars, pp. 82–84.
page 280 note 5 Mr. Sherring, in an article on the Bhars, J.R.A.S. Vol. V. pp. 376–400, shows how the Bhars were turned out of Allahabad and Fyzabad, both of which districts formerly belonged to them, by successive invasions of Rajput tribes from the West. In the same article, p. 391, he describes the numerous Bhar remains found in the ruins of the ancient Bhar city of Pampapura, near Mirzapur. These show the Bhars to have been a cultured and civilized people.
page 281 note 1 B.A.S.J. vol. xlv. pp. 297 seqq.
page 281 note 2 B.A.S.J. vol. xlv. p. 303.
page 281 note 3 Hunter's Gazetteer, s.v. Barābar, vol. ii. p. 175.
page 282 note 1 Harivamsa, i. p. 157.
page 282 note 2 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxx. p. 86.
page 283 note 1 Vana (Tirtha Yatra) Parva, cxxx. p. 392.
page 283 note 2 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 340.
page 284 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, c. p. 304.
page 285 note 1 Virāta (Vaivāhika) Parva, lxxii. pp 182–185.
page 286 note 1 Rigv. v. 5. 8; i. 13. 9.
page 286 note 2 Rigv. iii. iv. 8.
page 286 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxiii. p. 164.
page 286 note 4 Hunter's Gazetteer of India, vol. ii. p, 170.
page 286 note 5 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra), Parva, lxxxix. p. 293.
page 287 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, xcv. p. 282.
page 287 note 2 Vishnu Purāna, chap. iv.
page 287 note 3 This is a corroboration of the conjecture that the Purus are representatives of the snake races in general. If Pururavas and Iḷa are the ancestors of the great serpent Nahusha, they are ancestors of all the snake races.
page 287 note 4 Alberuni's India, Sachau's edition, vol. ii. p. 103; Cunningham's Ancient Geography of India, p. 319.
page 287 note 5 Ādi (Arjunavanasa) Parva, ccxx. p. 502; see also p. 504, where Revatī is also called the wife of Valarāma, the son of Rohinī, and the traditional ancestor of the Andha Bhojas of Dwāraka.
page 288 note 1 Rigv. viii. 3. 9; viii. 6. 18. The mention of the Bhṛigus and Yatis together here seems to show that the legend of the descent of the tribes of the West from Yayāti had its origin in the Avanti and Nerbudda country. It will he recollected that Devayanī, the wife of Yayāti and the mother of Yadu, and Turvaṣu, was the grand-daughter of Bhṛigu, and the legends of the Bhṛigus, are all confined to the country bordering on the Nerbudda. In that case the order of the sons of Yayāti would be given according to the position of the tribes descended from the beginning from the south. First come the Yadus and Turvaṣus; that is, the Yadus, or the arianized cattle-herding races, and the Turvaṣus, or the arianized forest tribes, answering to the Yavanas. Then the Druhyu or Bhojas, answering to the Kambojas. Next the Anu, who are the Kolarian tribes north of the Purushnī, and last of all the Purus, the Kuru-Takkas or city-builders.
page 288 note 2 Ādi (Chaitra-ratha) Parva, clxix. pp. 512–514.
page 289 note 1 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, xcix. pp. 316–317.
page 289 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxxx. p. 245.
page 289 note 3 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, xcix. p. 315.
page 290 note 1 But perhaps the earliest form of the name Bārata came from the Mundari (Kolarian) word buru ‘a hill,’ and that as the Kolarians preferred living in the hilly tracts, they called themselves the sons of the hill, mountains being an especial object of their worship. But the Kolarian tribes who settled in the low country could not any longer justify the name of sons of the hill. They therefore called themselves sons of the Bur or hill-like tree, in which their mountain god was supposed to reside on accompanying his votaries to their new abode. The whole question is discussed further on in p. 292 with reference to the chronological indications given by the adoption of this and similar names.
page 291 note 1 Ādi (Pausiya) Parva, iii. p 56.
2 Virāta (Pandava Pravesa) Parva, iii. p. 4.
page 291 note 3 Ādi (Pausiya) Parva, iii. p. 56.
page 291 note 4 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, lxxx. p. 267.
page 291 note 5 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 199.
page 291 note 6 Sabha (Digvijaya) Parva, xxxi. p. 88.
page 291 note 7 Udyoga (Amvopakhyana) Parva, cxcvii. p. 558.
page 291 note 8 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 194, see p. 284.
page 292 note 1 Ādi (Sambhaya) Parva, lxvi. p. 192.
page 292 note 2 Ādi (Chaitraratha) Parva, clxix. pp. 512–517.
page 293 note 1 Janamejaya, son of Puru, is said to have performed three horse sacrifices. Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, xcv. p. 283.
page 294 note 1 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 36Google Scholar; Ṣatāpatha Brahmāṇa, 13. 2. 8. 3.
page 294 note 3 Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, vol. i. p. 13 note. He is called the king of the North, and Aṣvapati is mentioned in the Mahābhārata as one of the Asuras, the sons of Danu, the father of the snake races. Ādi (sambhava) Parva, lxv. p. 186.
page 294 note 3 Adi (Hidimva-badha) Parva, clviii. p. 458.
page 295 note 1 Sabha (Dyuta) Parva, Hi. p. 145.
page 295 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvii. p. 198.
page 295 note 3 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xiv. pp. 46 and 47.
page 295 note 4 Sabha (Jarasandhabadha) Parva, xxii. p. 69.
page 295 note 5 ProfWeber, A., India and the West in Old Days, p. 6Google Scholar, gives the name as Kaṣyakapura.
page 295 note 6 It is also the city of Kassapa the Buddha, which gives a further identification of the name. The capital of the Gandharvas of the Kīchaka country is in the Mahābhārata said to be Ekachakra, which is also mentioned among the nineteen capitals of the sons of Okkako (lkshvāku) named in the Tika orabridged commentary on the Mahāvamso by Mahānāmo. Turnour's Mahavamso, Preface, p. xxxv. Ekachakra is probably the city of Pampapura mentioned in note 5, p 280. It was like Kaṣi both a Bar and Gandhāra city, which was subsequently ruled by lkshvāku kings.
page 296 note 1 Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, p. 36; V.S. 23. 18; Taitt. S. 7. 4. 19. 1.
page 296 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cii p. 310; Vichitta Virya only married two.
page 296 note 3 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xvii. pp. 54–57.
page 297 note 1 Alberuni's India, edited and translated Dr. Sachau, chap, xxiii. vol. i. p. 247. The Nishadas were, it will be recollected, Kolarians.
page 296 note 2 Ādi (Astika) Parva, xviii. p. 78.
page 297 note 3 Manu, iii. 26.
page 298 note 1 Gautama, iv. 10–12; Būhler's Translation, Sacred Books of the East, vol. ii. p. 195.
page 298 note 2 Vishṇu Purāṇa, Bk. iv. chap. 4.
page 298 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, xcv. p. 283.
page 302 note 1 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvi. p. 189, where traces of the different changes in the chronological reckoning are to be found.
page 302 note 2 The statement in the Mahābhārata, Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvi. p. 180, is as follows: “It is known also throughout the world that the wives of Ṣoma (the moon) are twenty-seven, and the wives of Ṣoma, all of sacred vows, are employed in indicating time, and they are the Nakshatras and the Yoginis, and they become so for assisting the courses of the world.”
page 302 note 3 Alberuni's India, edited and translated by Prof. E. Sachau, chap. xxxv. p. 350, vol. i.
page 302 note 4 These are the thirty-three gods of the Tāvatimsa (belonging to thirty-three) heavens in the Buddhist cosmogony. Sakko (Sakraor Indra) is the head of these thirty-three gods.—Childers, Pāli Dict., s.v. Tāvatimso.
page 303 note 1 Alberuni's India, chap. lxi. p. 120, vol. ii. Sachau's translation gives two lists of names of snakes applied to the five planets. Takshaka, Karkota, whom I have shown to represent the Kauravya, Ilāpatra, and Mahāpadma, which are the Irāvata snakes, appear in these lists, and the last in the list is Saṇkha, who is evidently the Sankara or Ṣiva of the Mahābhārata. For further information as to the original thirty-three gods, their several functions and the divisions into which the gods regulating the course of the year were grouped, see Appendix B. Ludwig is quoted by Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 354Google Scholar, as adopting this division of the thirty-three gods, but he did not apparently pursue the subject any further than to suggest this as a probable explanation of the difficulty in accounting for the number thirty-three.
page 304 note 1 Prajapati means the lord of creatures, and in Monier-Williams's Sanskrit Dictionary Vashaṭkāra is interpreted to mean “he who makes a burnt offering with the formula Vashat, meaning may the god of fire bear it to the gods.” See Appendix B, where I have shown, on the authority of the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, that Vashaṭkāra means the maker of the six seasons.
page 304 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxvi. p. 188.
page 304 note 3 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, xcix. pp. 295–297.
page 305 note 1 Rigv. x. 72. 8 and 9 gives a precisely similar account of the fate of the eight sons of Āditi, to that given in the Mahābharāta of the eight sons of Gunga. In the verses quoted Āditi has eight sons (ādityas); she sends back seven immediately to the gods. The eighth she calls continually to be born, and sends him away to die. The eighth son is here called the son of the egg, and means, as the Mahābhārata proves. Aruna, the charioteer of the sun, and god of the firestick (araṇi). Aruna is said to be born out of an egg, with the upper part of his body developed, but the lower part undeveloped. He is thus the counterpart of the son of the egg in the Rigveda, who revives in the morning and dies at night.—Ādi (Astika) Parva, xvi. and xxiv. pp. 77 and 91.
page 305 note 2 Manu, vii. 42.
page 305 note 3 Udyoga (Bhagavatyana) Parva, cv.–cxxii.
page 306 note 1 Ādi (Astika) Parva, xvi.–xxxiv. pp. 76–113.
page 306 note 1 Ādi (Astika) Parva, xxiv. p. 91.
page 307 note 1 Does not this legend point to an immigration of the snake-worshipping tribes by sea? the bird Gaḍura representing the ships; or may he not be the divine storm bird, Lugal-tudda, of Assyrian mythology; he being the monsoon or storm wind which brought the snake races from the west to India? Commerce by sea dates from a very early period, and it is possible that some of the immigrants may have come by sea. Andhra coins are found bearing the image of a ship. For the storm bird see Sayce's Hibbert Lectures for 1887, pp. 293–296.
page 307 note 2 See above, p. 253, for the story of how Gaḍura devoured the Brahmin and his Nishada wife.
page 308 note 1 Primitive Marriage in Bengal, by H. Risley, Asiatic Quart. Review, April, 1886.
page 308 note 2 Ādi (Astika) Parva, xl. to lviii. pp. 121–160.
page 308 note 3 Ādi (Astika) Parva, liii. p. 149 and 150.
page 308 note 4 From this explanation of the true meaning of Asṭika and Ashṭaka it is clear that Hastinapur or Hastinagur does not mean the eight cities, but the city of the eighth Vasu, the Sun.
page 308 note 5 Rigv. vi. 16. 19 and 45.
page 308 note 6 Rigv. viii. 74. 4.
page 309 note 1 Rigv. iv. 15. 4.
page 309 note 2 Ṣatapatha Brāhmana, 4. 1. 13; Eggeling's translation, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. p. 105.
page 309 note 3 Or perhaps rather the Chota Gunduk. This is the old hed of the Gunduk, but is many miles east of the present Gunduk, just as the old bed of the Kusi is many miles east of the ancient bed.
page 309 note 4 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxx. and cxxxi. pp. 380 and 385.
page 309 note 5 Sabha (Rajasuyarambha) Parva, xvii. pp. 55–56.
page 309 note 6 Ṣatapatha Brāhmaṇa, 2. 4. 4. 4; Eggeling's translation, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. p. 376.
page 311 note 1 See for the origin of the worship of Vishṇu or Krishṇa and of Ṣiva, Appendix B, where Vishṇu is shown to be the Semite-Acead sun god Vāsuki, and Ṣiva the god of the earlier moon-worshipping races descended from the snake god Ea.
page 311 note 2 Vana (Kanāta) Parva, xxxix. pp. 121–126. In this account of the appearance of Sankara or Mahadeva and his wife Uma to Arjuna, they both assumed the forms of Kirātas or Kolarians.
page 311 note 3 Alberuni shows that in the later form of the sacrifice the horse was no longer killed. In describing it he says: “A mare is let to wander freely about in the country grazing, without anybody's hindering her. Soldiers follow her, drive her, and cry out before her, ‘She is the king of the world. He who does not agree Jet him come forward.’ The Brahmins walk behind her, and her form sacrifices to the fire where she casts her dung. When she has thus wandered through all parts of the world, she becomes food for the Brahmins and for him whose property she is.”—Alberuni's India, Sachau's edition, vol. ii. ch. lxv. p. 139. This form of sacrifice is similar to that of the Brahmini bull.
page 311 note 4 We find two instances of human sacrifices in the Mahābhārata, the first, Ādi (Sambhava) Parva. xcv. p. 283, where king Ayuta-Nayi performed a sacrifice in which the fat of an Ayuta of male beings was required, and the other in the story of Jarasandha, where he is accused by Krishna of seeking to perform a sacrifice to Sankara by slaughtering human beings, and of keeping captive beings to sacrifice to him. Sabha (Jarasandha-badha) Parva, xxii. p. 68. Human sacrifice still continually occurs in remote tracts. I have known of three cases which have occurred in the last twenty years in the Chota Nagpore country. This constant recurrence to the old practice and the organized system of Mereahs or boys brought up for the purpose among the Khonds of Orissa, which was put a stop to only about thirty-five years ago proves the general prevalence of the custom in ancient times.
page 312 note 1 Ṣatapatha Brahmāna, ii. 4. 4. 5; ProfEggeling's, translation, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. p. 377Google Scholar.
page 315 note * This is the traditional Janamejaya, who was the founder of the Eastern Monarchy of the Bhāratas. None of the kings after him, down to Riksha No. 25, have any connection with the Northern Kurus; perhaps this connection took place through Ajamida marrying a daughter of Riksha. Riksha, as I have shown in the text, is a Puru or Kuru king.
page 316 note * This king is said to have performed a sacrifice requiring an Ayuta of male beings, perhaps a case of human sacrifice. His father-in-law Pṛthuṣravas may perhaps be the same as Kānita Pṛthuṣravas, who is mentioned in Rigv. viii. 46. 21 and 24.
page 317 note * In Rg. viii. 51. 1, only the successors of Samvaraṇa are mentioned. Ṣrntarvan is called the son of Riksha in Rg. viii. 74. 4.
page 317 note † These quotations from the Atharvaveda are taken from Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, p. 131Google Scholar.
The Mahābhārata genealogies are evidently made up out of a number of separate traditions and separate lines. That taken from the Vedas probably represents fairly the real line of succession of the Puru-Kuru kings, and the names mentioned there are probably those of real personages. The other questions relating to these genealogies have been fully dealt with in the text.
page 318 note 1 Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. v. sect. ix. p. 147.
page 318 note 2 Nakshatras probably mean Nag-ksketras or stations of the Nag or Snake. Nag-kshetra, meaning field of the Nag or great snake, would be formed just in the same way as Ahi-kshetra and Kurukshetra, p. 218.
page 318 note 3 Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. v. sect. i. pp. 9–11.
page 318 note 4 Ait. Brāhmaṇa, Haug's translation, vol. ii. p. 110.
page 319 note 1 Satapatha Brāhmaṇa, iv. 5. 7. 2; Sacred Books of the East, Prof. Eggeling's translation, vol. xxvi. p. 411.
page 320 note 1 Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, iii. 6, Haug's translation, vol. ii. p. 167.
page 320 note 2 Alberuni's India, Sachau's translation, vol. ii. chap. lxi. pp. 118–120
page 321 note 1 Alberuni's India, vol. i. chap, xxxvii. p. 357.
page 321 note 2 Zimmer, , Altindisches Leben, pp. 371–373Google Scholar.
page 321 note 3 The year among the Dravidian Tamils of Southern India still begins at the winter solstice. There the chief annual festival is the Pongol, which “marks the commencement of the Tamil year.” — Williams, Monier, Religious Thought and Life in India, chap. xvi. p. 429Google Scholar. The Abbé Dubois, a Roman Catholic Missionary, who spent many years in Southern India, and lived in most intimate communion with the natives, in his work Sur les Mœurs, Institutions et Ceremonies des peuples de l'Inde, published in 1825, vol. ii. part iii. Religion, chap. iii. p. 354, says: “The Pongol festival is the most sacred of all feasts in Southern India, it is presided over by Siva.” This agrees with my suggestion that he is the dominant god of the lunar year and of the winter solstice, when, as Abbé Dubois says, the festival begins (on the entrance of the Sun into Capricornus, the sign of the goat).
page 322 note 1 Soma is used to mean both the moon and strong drink. It probably meant first intoxicating drinks, which is the meaning it most frequently has in the Rigveda. These were regarded as the means of procuring the inspiration of the vital creative power which was the father and mother of all things. Hence the reverence always paíd to lunatics in the East. The moon as the great author and most constant evidence of the heavenly vital changes regulating the times and seasons of the earth was called by the name of Soma the inspirer. It was from the connection between drinking strong drink and moon worship which led the Vishnuites, who were the opponents of the older snake and moon worshippers, to be advocates of total abstinence from intoxicating drinks, see p. 278.
page 322 note 2 Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxv. pp. 185–186.
page 323 note 1 Alberuni's India, Sachau's translation, vol. ii. chap. lxi. p. 120.
page 323 note 2 Rigv. x. 120. 6; Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. v. p. 95.
page 323 note 3 Alberuni's India, Sachau's translation, vol. ii. chap, lxxvi. p. 182.
page 324 note 1 Vana (Tirtha-Yatra) Parva, lxxxii. pp. 241–2.
page 324 note 2 p 243.
page 324 note 3 Sayce's Hibbert Lectures for 1887, p. 193.
page 325 note 1 Ibid., pp. 167–8.
page 325 note 2 Zodiac, Encyclopædia Britannica, pp. 791, 794; Sayce's Hibbert Lectures for 1887, pp. 397–8.
page 325 note 3 Sayce's Hibbert Lectures for 1887, p. 167.
page 325 note 4 Ibid., p. 398.
page 326 note 1 Ibid., pp. 134, 135.
page 326 note 2 Sayce's Hibbert Lectures for 1887, pp. 32–33.
page 326 note 3 Ibid., p. 140.
page 326 note 4 In an article on Ophir in the Queen's Printers' Aids to the Student of the Holy Bible.
page 327 note 1 Hunter's Gazetteer, vol. iii. p. 98, s.v. Brahui. The name Abhfra seems to be probably connected with the word ibha, ‘an elephant,’ which appears in the Hebrew word for the ivory brought by Solomon's ships, senhabbim, or the ‘teeth of elephants,’ habbim being ibha with the Hebrew plural termination. Ibha, though used in Sanskrit to denote elephants, is not an original Sanskrit word, elephants being called in the Rigveda mṛga hastin, or ‘the deer (mṛga) with hands’ (hastin), and is almost certainly a Dravidian word. Abhfra, or Ibhfra, would therefore appear to mean ‘the land of the elephants,’ and the people who lived in it were called by a Dravidian name which meant the elephant race, and which was the origin of the name of Irāvata, or the elephant race, which has been shown in p. 265 to be that of the Haihayas or Nahusha, the sons of the great serpent.
page 328 note 1 Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, i. 1, Haug's translation, vol. ii. p. 5.
page 328 note 2 Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Vol. XX. Part III. p. 349.
page 329 note 1 Ṣatapatha Brāhmaṇa, ii. 4. 4. 6; ProfEggling's, translation, Sacred Books of the East, vol xiiGoogle Scholar.
page 329 note 2 Ṣatapatha Brāhmaṇa, iii. 1. 1. 10; ProfEggeling's, translation, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi. p. 4Google Scholar.
page 329 note 3 Mahābhārata, Ādi (Sambhava) Parva, lxv. pp. 185, 186, lxvii. pp. 194–197.