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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 July 2014
A persistent myth featuring in some modern accounts of the transition from Fatimid to Ayyubid rule (1169–71) is that one of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn's (r. 1171–93) first actions upon attaining sovereignty over Egypt was to destroy the Fatimids’ book collections in their entirety. Medieval sources present a different, more nuanced depiction of books sold and dispersed over a decade or more, rather than extirpated and put out of circulation altogether. This article collects and examines medieval Arabic accounts of the episode, and finds further indications of the robust survival of Fatimid-era works in the composition of later chronicles, where native Fatimid-era accounts, which clearly did endure beyond the Fatimid age, are well-represented. The article also looks at the tendentious aspects of medieval accounts of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn's policies, and the difficulties they pose to a modern appraisal of the sultan's character and intellectual-ideological tendencies.
1 I would like to express my thanks to Dr Konrad Hirschler for his comments on an earlier draft of this article.
2 “In Fatimid times, especially after the transference of the seat of the Fatimid state from Ifriqiya to Egypt in 362ah/973ce, numerous histories of the Fatimid state and dynasty were compiled by contemporary historians, both Isma‘ili and non-Isma‘ili. But with the exception of a few fragments, the Fatimid chronicles did not survive the downfall of the dynasty. The Sunni Ayyubids who succeeded the Fatimids in Egypt systematically destroyed the renowned Fatimid libraries at Cairo. . .” Daftary, Farhad, A Short History of the Isma‘ilis, (Edinburgh, 1998), 5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a sample of modern scholars who propound this view, see Lewis, Bernard, “Saladin and the Assassins”, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (henceforth ‘BSOAS’) 15, Part 2 (1953), pp. 239–245 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; 242; idem, review of Die Chronik des Ibn ad-Dawādārī. Sechster Teil. Der Bericht über die Fatimiden by Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Munajjid, BSOAS 26, Part 2 (1963), pp. 429–431; 429; idem, Letter, “The Vanished Library”, The New York Review of Books, 37, Part 14 September 27 (1990); Daftary, Farhad, The Isma‘ilis: Their History and Doctrines (Cambridge, 1992), p. 273 Google Scholar; Halm, Heinz, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning (London, 1997, 2001), pp. 92–93 Google Scholar. For its popular reiteration, see, for example, Rosicrucian Digest, 8, Part 1 (2006), p. 8. For a contrary, better-informed exposition of the events of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn's first years in Egypt, see Eddé, Anne-Marie, Saladin (Cambridge, Mass. and London, 2011), esp. 53–55 Google Scholar.
3 Walker, Paul, Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources, (London, 2002)Google Scholar; Brett, Michael “Fatimid Historiography: a Case Study – the Quarrel with the Zirids, 1048–58”, in Morgan, David O. (ed.), Medieval Historical Writing in the Christian and Islamic Worlds (London, 1982), pp. 47–59 Google Scholar; idem, review of Ayman Fu’ad Sayyid's edition of Ibn Muyassar's Akhbār Miṣr: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2 (1983), pp. 293–229; idem, “Lingua Franca in the Mediterranean: John Wansborough and the Historiography of Medieval Egypt”, in Hugh Kennedy (ed.), The Historiography of Islamic Egypt (c. 950–1800), (Leiden, 2001), pp. 1–11; Sayyid, Ayman Fu’ad, Ṭuwayr, Ibn's Nuzhat al–muqlatayn fī akhbār al–dawlatayn, (Beirut, 1992)Google Scholar; idem, Passages de la Chronologie d’Egypte d’lbn al-Ma’mūn, Prince Jamāl al-Dīn Abū ‘Alī Mūsā b. al-Ma’mūn al-Baṭā’iḥī, Textes arabes et études islamiques, Vol. 21 (Cairo, 1983); Hirschler, Konrad, The Written Word in the Medieval Arabic Lands – A Social And Cultural History Of Reading Practices (Edinburgh, 2012)Google Scholar.
4 Gibb, H. A. R. ‘Al-Barq al-Shami: The History of Saladin by the Katib ‘Imad al-Din al-Isfahani’, Wiener Zeitschrift für Kunde des Morgenlandes 52 (1952–55), pp. 93–115 Google Scholar; Dajani-Shakeel, H., “Egypt and the Egyptians: A Focal Point in the Policies and Literature of Al-Qāḍī Al-Fāḍil”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 36, Part 1 (Jan. 1977), pp. 25–38 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Holt, Peter M., “Saladin and His Admirers: A Biographical Reassessment”, BSOAS 46, Part 2 (1983), pp. 235–239 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Richards, Donald S., “A Consideration of Two Sources for the Life of Saladin”, Journal of Semitic Studies 25, Part 1 (1980), pp. 46–65 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, “Imād al-Dīn al-Iṣfahānī: Administrator, Littérateur and Historian”, in Maya Shatzmiller (ed.), Crusaders and Muslims in Twelfth-Century Syria, (Leiden, 1993), pp. 133–146; Lev, Yaacov, Saladin in Egypt(Leiden, 1999), Chapters. 1.2–1.3 Google Scholar.
5 Elayyan, R. M., “The History of the Arabic-Islamic Libraries: 7th to 14th Centuries”, International Library Review 22 (1990), pp. 119–135 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mackensen, Ruth Stellhorn, “Moslem Libraries and Sectarian Propaganda”, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 51, Part 2 (1935), pp. 83–113 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Halm (2001); Hirschler (2012).
6 See in particular Möhring, Hannes Saladin: Der Sultan und seine Zeit, 1138–1193 (Munich, 2005)Google Scholar; trans. as Saladin: The Sultan and His Times, 1138–1193 by D. S. Bachrach (Baltimore, 2008), Lev (1999), Azzam, Abdul Rahman, Saladin (Harlow, 2009)Google Scholar and Eddé, op. cit.
7 Eddé, 54.
8 See n. 5 above.
9 Little, Donald P., An Introduction to Mamluk Historiography: An Analysis of Arabic Annalistic and Biographical Sources for the Reign of Al-Malik-An-Nāṣir Muḥammad Ibn Qalā’ūn (Wiesbaden, 1970)Google Scholar; Massoud, Sami G., The Chronicles and Annalistic Sources of the Early Mamluk Circassian Period (Leiden, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Claude Cahen, “Editing Arabic Chronicles”, Islamic Studies (1962), pp. 1–25.
10 Hirschler (2012), Chapter 4., esp. pp. 147–151.
11 For surveys of late Fatimid/Ayyubid historiography, see Little, Donald P., “Historiography of the Ayyubid and Mamluk epochs” in The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. I, (ed.) Petry, Carl F., (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 414–420 Google Scholar; F. Bora, “Mamluk Representations of Late Fatimid Egypt: the Survival of Fatimid-Era Historiography in Ibn al-Furāt's Ta’rīkh al-duwal wa ’l-mulūk (History of Dynasties and Kings)”, DPhil Thesis, Oxford University, 2010, pp. 58–69.
12 Walker, Paul E., “Fatimid Institutions of Learning”, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 34 (1997), pp. 179–200 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; pp. 193–194.
13 Walker (1997), p. 195; Mackensen, p. 97.
14 Halm (1997), p. 71.
15 Elayyan, p. 21.
16 See, for example, Hirschler (2012), p. 132.
17 Sanders, P., “The Fatimid State, 969–1171” in Petry, C. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 151–174 Google Scholar; p. 152; Walker, Paul E., “Fatimid Institutions” as reprinted in idem , Fatimid History and Ismaili Doctrine (Aldershot, 2008), pp. 31–32 Google Scholar.
18 Walker (2008), p. 31.
19 Bloom, J., Arts of the City Victorious: Islamic Art and Architecture in Fatimid North Africa and Egypt(New Haven and London, 2007), p. 157 Google Scholar.
20 For an account of the regard for books and learning in medieval Islamic societies (and an oblique comparison with their status in western European ones), see Pedersen, J., The Arabic Book, trans. by Geoffrey French, (New Jersey, 1984), pp. xiv–xv, 21, 37–39 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the 1068 episode, see Walker (2008), pp. 31–32.
21 Ta’rīkh al-duwal wa ’l-mulūk, edited in two parts by M. H. al-Shammā‘ (1968–9) 4, p. 125.
22 Elayyan, pp. 119–135; pp. 127–128; Mackensen, p. 100.
23 For a full account of the disintegration of Fatimid rule and Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn's policies upon stepping into the breach there, see Lev (1999), Chapter 3, esp. pp. 116–136; cf. Yehoshua Frenkel, “Political and social aspects of Islamic religious endowments (awqāf): Saladin in Cairo (1169–73) and Jerusalem (1187–93)”, BSOAS 62, Part 1 (1999), pp. 1–20.
24 Little (1998), pp. 412–444; Mackensen, pp. 99–100.
25 The report from Ibn Abī Ṭayy is reported by Abū Shāma: Kitāb al-Rawḍatayn fī akhbār al-dawlatayn, edited in 2 vols (Cairo, 1870–1871), 1, pp. 199–200; for the remaining authors mentioned here, see al-Bundārī, Sanā al-Barq al-Shāmī (ed.) By F. al-Nabrawi (Cairo, 1979); al-Kāmil, (ed.) in 11 vols by M. Y. al-Daqqāq, (Beirut, 2003), 10, p. 34; Wafayāt al-A‘yān, (ed.) Iḥsān ‘Abbās, 8 vols (Beirut, 1968–72), 8 p. 46, pp. 158–159; Ta’rīkh al-duwal wa ‘l-mulūk, 4, (1), pp. 167–168; Kitāb al-‘Ibar wa dīwān al-mubtadā’ wa ’l-khabar, edited in 7 vols (Cairo, 1867), pp. 81–82; al-Mawā‘iẓ wa ’l-i‘tibār fī dhikr al-khiṭaṭ wa ’l-āthār [also known as the Khiṭaṭ], (ed.) by K. al-Manṣūr (Beirut, 1998), 2, p. 292; al-Nujūm al-zāhira fī mulūk Miṣr wa ’l-Qāhira, edited in 16 vols by M. H. Shams al-Dīn (Beirut, 1992), 5, p. 321; for Ibn Shaddād: Richards, D. S., The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin: Or al-Nawadir al-Sultaniyya wa’l-Mahasin al-Yusufiyya by Baha’ Al-Din Ibn Shaddad (London, 2001), p. 47; cf. Mackensen, p. 99Google Scholar.
26 Robinson, Chase F., Islamic Historiography: religion and society in the Near East, 600–1800 (Cambridge, 2003), p. 153 Google Scholar; citing Albrecht Noth, The Early Arabic Historical Tradition: A Source-Critical Study, second edition in collaboration with Lawrence I. Conrad; translated from the German by Michael Bonner (New Jersey, 1994), 109ff. Cf. Eddé, p. 53.
27 Sayyid, Nuzhat, pp. 126–127.
28 The others being his Bahā’ al-Dīn Ibn Shaddād and al-Qāḍī al-Fādil, his chief administrator in Egypt: for the latter's roles, alongside ‘Imād al-Dīn's, especially in the context of Salāḥ al-Dīn's building of the Citadel at Cairo and its inscriptions, including the new sultan's honorific titles as expressions of his relationship with the ‘Abbasid caliph, see Rabbat, N., The Citadel of Cairo: a New Interpretation of Royal Mamluk Architecture (Leiden, 1995), pp. 68–74 Google Scholar.
29 Abū Shāma, al-Rawḍatayn 1, p. 200; al-Bundārī, p. 116; cf. Eddé, p. 54.
30 See n. 25 above.
31 For more on his ouevre, see Singh, N. K. and Samiuddin, A. (eds.), Encyclopaedic Historiography of the Muslim World (Delhi, 2004), pp. 15–16Google Scholar.
32 Abū Shāma, al-Rawḍatayn 1, p. 200; Walker (1997), p. 31; Mackensen (1935), p. 97. The famous collection at al-Ḥākim's Dār al-Ḥikma, which included books of great value, was largely liquidated in these riots, though it survived in an attenuated form until the end of Fatimid rule: Elayyan, pp. 127–128; Mackensen, p. 100.
33 Mackensen, p. 97, p. 100.
34 Halm (1997), p. 92.
35 A portion of these fell into the hands of a broker named Ibn Sūra, who sold them on to individuals: Ibn Ṭuwayr, Nuzhat pp. 126–127; Halm, loc. cit, p. 92.
36 Walker (2002), Chapters 6–7; Bora, pp. 58–69; al-Maqrīzī, Ighāthat al-umma bi kashf al-ghumma, M. al-Ziyāda and J al-Shayyāl (eds.), Cairo, 1957, pp. 72–73. His classification of Cairo society into seven social strata is a useful heuristic tool, and the merchantile/scholarly classes mentioned here fall into sections 2, 3 and 5 of the following list: (1) the Mamluk political elite; (2) merchants; (3) lower-class merchants and tradesmen; (4) peasants; (5) professional scholars; (6) artisans and those who worked for a living (7) the urban poor, water-carriers, etc. Cf. Hirschler pp. 25–26 and passim on the reading practices and literary development of these groups.
37 Itti’āẓ, 3, p. 346; cf. the wide range of Fatamid-era and other sources listed in Guest, A. R., “A List of Writers, Books and other Authorities mentioned by El Maqrizi in his Khitat ”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1902), pp. 103–125 Google Scholar.
38 Little (1998), p. 417.
39 For documentation of this predilection, see Bora, Chapters. 2, 6.
40 Gary Leiser, “The Restoration of Sunnism in Egypt: Madrasas and Mudarrisūn 495–647/1101–1249”, unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1976, p. 336; idem, “The Madrasa and the Islamization of the Middle East: The Case of Egypt”, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 22 (1985), pp. 29–47; p. 44; Elayyan, p. 124; Hirschler (2012), p. 131.
41 Mackensen, p. 99; Elayyan, p. 121.
42 Hirschler (2012), chapter 4.
43 Although al-Maqrīzī is said to have availed himself of Isma‘ili theological writings, which would otherwise have been scarce in post-Fatimid Egypt: Walker (2003), pp. 85–87.
44 Al-Ṣuyūṭī (d. 1505), in characteristically polemical mode, stated that Qāḍī al-Fāḍil burned those books he regarded as heretical, though none of the early sources mention this: Dajani-Shakeel, p. 30. That he would have burned chronicles as opposed to Isma‘ili religious books is even less credible, and in fact he was involved in the commission of literary works while he served the Fatimids, Daftary (2004), p. 194.
45 Lev, Chapters. 1.2, 2.2, 2.3; Dajani-Shakeel.
46 For a discussion of various works left behind by Qāḍī al-Fāḍil, including his court and administrative ‘daily’ diaries, the Mutajaddidāt and Muyāwamāt, alongside his collected official correspondence, known as both the Mujalladāt and the Rasā’il, which were apparently available to his colleague ‘Imād al-Dīn and to the chronicler Abū Shāma, though not extant in themselves, see Singh & Samiuddin, pp. 782–785.
47 Eddé, p. 55.
48 ‘An Historiographical Study of al-Quḍā‘ī's Ta’rīkh’, MPhil Thesis (University of Oxford, 1998), the codices I was able to examine are Bodleian Pococke 270 and Marshall 37.
49 A stance that most famously took succour from the refutation of the Isma‘ili creed produced by al-Ghazali in the eleventh century, as the Fatimids’ power seemed firm and expanding: Abū Ḥamīd al-Ghazālī (d. 1111), al-Mustaẓhirī or Faḍā’iḥ al-Bāṭiniyya wa faḍā’il al-mutaẓhiriyya (Infamies of the Esoterics and the Renown of the Exoterics): for a variety of print and electronic editions, see <http://www.ghazali.org/site/oeuvre-t.htm; cf. Mitha, Farouk, Al-Ghazālī and the Ismailis: a debate on reason and authority in medieval Islam (London, 2001)Google Scholar.
50 Lev (1999), Chapters. 1.2, 1.3.
51 For example, Ta’rīkh al-duwal, IV, pp. 124–129.
52 Frenkel, 3; Lev (1999), p. 119.
53 Ta’rīkh al-duwal, IV, p. 124.
54 Bora, pp. 58–69.
55 Ta’rīkh al-duwal, MS Vienna Arab 814, vol. 3: ff. 14b-17b.
56 Kennedy, H., “Caliphs and their chroniclers in the Middle Abbasid period (third/ninth century)”, in The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East (London, 2006), pp. 17–35, p. 18Google Scholar.
57 Sanders, Paula, “Claiming the past: Ghadīr Khumm and the Rise of Hafizi Historiography in Late Fatimid Egypt2, Studia Islamica 75 (1992), pp. 81–104 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
58 Brett (2001), 10–11.
59 Hallaq, W. B., ‘The “qāḍī's dīwān (sijill)” before the Ottomans’, BSOAS 61, 3 (1998), pp. 415–436 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
60 Haarmann, Ulrich, ‘Mamluk studies - a Western perspective’, Arab Journal for the Humanities 13, 51 (1995), pp. 329–347 Google Scholar; p. 337.
61 The ‘three great contemporary witnesses of his career [were] Bahā’ al-Dīn, ‘Imād al-Dīn and al-Qāḍī al-Fāḍil’; Scanlon, George T., review of Andrew Ehrenkreutz's, S. Saladin (1972); Journal of Semitic Studies 20 (1975), pp. 276–278 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
62 Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. “Saladin's coup d’etat in Egypt” in Hanna, Sami A. (ed.), Medieval and Middle Eastern studies: In honor of Aziz Suryal Atiya, (Leiden, 1972), p. 152 Google Scholar; idem, Saladin (Albany, 1972).
63 H. E. Mayer, review of Saladin by A. S. Ehrenkreutz (1972), Speculum 49, 4 (1974), pp. 724–727; Scanlon (1975), p. 272.
64 Holt (1983), p. 237.
65 Lev (1999), Chapters. 1.2, 1.3.
66 See n. 6 above.
67 For a sense of the stylistic and methodological variations in the biographies of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn, including the presence - or lack - of hagiographic elements, see Richards (1980) and Holt (1983); cf. Lev (1999), Chapters 1.3.
68 Brett, (1982).
69 Lewis, (1990). Cf. Halm (1997, 2001), pp. 94–95 who cites al-Juwaynī's account of his destruction of Niẓārī heretical books, then admits they were not all lost: this sounds like the fate of Fatimid books, though Halm does not draw that analogy here.
70 See n. 29 above.
71 Hirschler (2012), pp. 131–132.
72 See n. 44 above.
73 Ibn Ṭuwayr, Nuzhat, p. 127; Walker (1997), p. 28.
74 Documentation of the relationship between al-Maqrīzī's Sulūk and Ibn al-Furāt's Ta’rīkh al-duwal for the year 694/1294–5 is provided by Little (1970); 73–5; for 778/1376–7 and 793/139–1 by Massoud (2007), Chapters. 1 and 2 (passim); further borrowings are indicated in: Reuven Amitai-Preiss Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 43–59; Bacharach, Jere L., “Circassian Mamluk Historians and their Quantitative Economic Data”, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 12 (1975), pp. 75–87 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; p.76, p.84.
75 For more detailed illustration of this phenomenon, see Bora, pp. 177–244.
76 Ta’rīkh al-duwal, MS Vienna Arab 814, III:185a-190a.
77 Walker (1997), pp. 33, 34.
78 Frenkel (1999), pp. 1–2.
79 Leiser (1976), p. 403.
80 This historiographical treatise, North Syrian in origin, has been attributed by two of its modern editors, Cahen (1937–8) and Tadmuri (2002), to ‘Imād al-Dīn al-Iṣfahānī; the latter of the two offers a more definite ascription than the former. Cahen's reservations about the ascription, despite the near-identification of the two sets of author names (in which he is followed by A. F. Sayyid, Chronique d’Égypte, Cairo, غ, 1981) based on the fact that the biographies of ‘Imād al-Dīn do not list this work within his corpus, that he was not a qāḍī, as the manuscript's attribution to him states, and that the writing style of the Bustān differs considerably from his other, more ‘flowery’ works, are not decisive, so I have preferred to accept the ascription of the single surviving manuscript in Istanbul (Saray 2959) to Imād al-Dīn, as Hillenbrand (2000), 618, has done, and as al-Jazarī, (d. 1338), a fellow Damascene and a specialist on Syrian scholars and authors, did (cf. Sayyid, op. cit., با, n. 4). Hartmann (1995), p. 92, suggests that the author was another ‘Imād al-Dīn from Hamah. ‘Imād al- Dīn was, however, ideally placed to collect the Syria-led reports that predominate in that work, though Egypt's history also has strong presence in it. It was, as I mention above, very probably an historiographical outline to be expanded upon later, styling itself a mukhtaṣar or summary (p. 137); the narrative reads like a prototype, with too much of either unique information or perspective to be a mere re-write of previous accounts, as mukhtaṣars usually were. Claude Cahen, ‘Une chronique syrienne du VIe/XIIe siècle: le Bustān al-Jāmi‘’, Bulletin d’études orientales de l’Institut français de Damas vii-viii (1937–8); ‘Umar ‘Abd al-Salam Tadmuri, al-Bustān al-jāmi‘ li-jami‘ tawārīkh ahl al-zamān/al-manṣūb ilā ‘Imād al-Dīn Abī Ḥamīd Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Aṣfahānī (2002); Hillenbrand, Carole, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (London and New York, 2000)Google Scholar; Hartmann, A, ‘A unique manuscript in the Asian Museum, St Petersburg: the Syrian chronicle at-Ta`riḥ al-Manṣūrī by Ibn Naẓīf al-Ḥamawī from the 7th ah/13th century’, Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras, Vermeulen, I. U. and Smet, D. De (eds.) (Leuven, 1995), pp. 89–100 Google Scholar.
81 For a description, see Lev (1999), Chapter 2.1.
82 Leiser (1976), pp. 430–431.
83 Lewis (1953), p. 239.
84 Frenkel (1999), 1, pp. 8–9.
85 Ibid.
86 Chamberlain, Michael, ‘The Crusader Era and the Ayyubid Dynasty’ in The Cambridge History of Egypt Vol. I, (ed.) Petry, Carl F. (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 198–242 Google Scholar; p. 216; cf. Richards (1980). For an alternative view, see, for example, Humphreys, R. Stephen, “Egypt in the world system of the later Middle Ages” in Petry, Carl F. (ed), The Cambridge History of Egypt, vol 1, (as above), pp. 445–466 Google Scholar, pp. 450–451.
87 For a sense of the stylistic and methodological variations in the biography of Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn, including the presence - or lack - of hagiographic elements, see Richards (1980).
88 Munqidh, Usāma b., Memoirs of an Arab-Syrian Gentleman or An Arab Knight in the Crusades. Memoirs of Usamah Ibn-Munqidh (Kitāb al-I‘tibār), trans. Hitti, P. K., (Beirut, 1964), p. 14 Google Scholar.
89 See William of Tyre, Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum, XX, pp. 5–10, Patrologia Latina p. 201, pp. 788–789, in The Crusades: A Documentary History (Milwaukee, 1962), (trans. J. Brundage), pp. 139–140. Other non-Arab sources consulted for comparison, viz. Nicetas Choniates, Chronicles, translated as O city of Byzantium: annals of Niketas Choniatēs by H. J. Magoulias, (Detroit, 1984) and the European/Byzantine sources collected by Hannes Möhring in Saladin und der Dritte Kreuzzug, (Wiesbaden, 1980), appear to be focused on events subsequent to Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn's earliest years as the Ayyubid ruler.
90 Goitein, S. D., A Mediterranean Society, (Berkeley, 1967), five vols, 1, p. 38 Google Scholar.