Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T20:32:53.094Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Auditory Vigilance and Working Memory in Youth at Familial Risk for Schizophrenia or Affective Psychosis in the Harvard Adolescent Family High Risk Study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 December 2016

Larry J. Seidman ,
Andrea Pousada-Casal ,
Silvia Scala ,
Eric C. Meyer ,
William S. Stone ,
Heidi W. Thermenos ,
Elena Molokotos ,
Jessica Agnew-Blais ,
Ming T. Tsuang  and
Stephen V. Faraone
Larry J. Seidman*
Affiliation:
Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts Mental Health Center Division of Public Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
Andrea Pousada-Casal
Affiliation:
Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts Mental Health Center Division of Public Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts Saint Louis University, Madrid, Spain
Silvia Scala
Affiliation:
Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts Mental Health Center Division of Public Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, Section of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology, University of Verona, P.le L.A. Scuro, Italy
Eric C. Meyer
Affiliation:
VA VISN 17 Center of Excellence for Research on Returning War Veterans, Waco, Texas Central Texas Veterans Healthcare System, Temple, Texas Texas A&M Health Science Center, College of Medicine, College Station, Texas
William S. Stone
Affiliation:
Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts Mental Health Center Division of Public Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts
Heidi W. Thermenos
Affiliation:
Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts Mental Health Center Division of Public Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
Elena Molokotos
Affiliation:
Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts Mental Health Center Division of Public Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts
Jessica Agnew-Blais
Affiliation:
MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience King’s College, London, United Kingdom
Ming T. Tsuang
Affiliation:
Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts Mental Health Center Division of Public Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts University of California, San Diego, Department of Psychiatry, Center for Behavior Genomics and Institute of Genomic Medicine, La Jolla, California
Stephen V. Faraone
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychiatry and of Neuroscience and Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York, New York
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Larry J. Seidman, Massachusetts Mental Health Center, Commonwealth Research Center, 5th Floor, 75 Fenwood Road, Boston, MA 02115. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background: The degree of overlap between schizophrenia (SCZ) and affective psychosis (AFF) has been a recurring question since Kraepelin’s subdivision of the major psychoses. Studying nonpsychotic relatives allows a comparison of disorder-associated phenotypes, without potential confounds that can obscure distinctive features of the disorder. Because attention and working memory have been proposed as potential endophenotypes for SCZ and AFF, we compared these cognitive features in individuals at familial high-risk (FHR) for the disorders. Methods: Young, unmedicated, first-degree relatives (ages, 13–25 years) at FHR-SCZ (n=41) and FHR-AFF (n=24) and community controls (CCs, n=54) were tested using attention and working memory versions of the Auditory Continuous Performance Test. To determine if schizotypal traits or current psychopathology accounted for cognitive deficits, we evaluated psychosis proneness using three Chapman Scales, Revised Physical Anhedonia, Perceptual Aberration, and Magical Ideation, and assessed psychopathology using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist -90 Revised. Results: Compared to controls, the FHR-AFF sample was significantly impaired in auditory vigilance, while the FHR-SCZ sample was significantly worse in working memory. Both FHR groups showed significantly higher levels of physical anhedonia and some psychopathological dimensions than controls. Adjusting for physical anhedonia, phobic anxiety, depression, psychoticism, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms eliminated the FHR-AFF vigilance effects but not the working memory deficits in FHR-SCZ. Conclusions: The working memory deficit in FHR-SZ was the more robust of the cognitive impairments after accounting for psychopathological confounds and is supported as an endophenotype. Examination of larger samples of people at familial risk for different psychoses remains necessary to confirm these findings and to clarify the role of vigilance in FHR-AFF. (JINS, 2016, 22, 1026–1037)

Keywords

Familial high-riskVigilanceWorking memoryPsychopathologySchizophreniaAffective psychosesEndophenotypes
Type
Research Articles
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 22 , Special Issue 10: Special Issue: Preclinical Prediction , November 2016 , pp. 1026 - 1037
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Agnew-Blais, J., & Seidman, L.J. (2013). Neurocognition in youth and young adults under age 30 at familial risk for schizophrenia: A quantitative and qualitative review. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 18, 44–82.Google Scholar
Agnew-Blais, J., Buka, S.L., Fitzmaurice, G.M, Smoller, J.W., Goldstein, J.M., & Seidman, L.J. (2015). Early childhood IQ trajectories of adults with schizophrenia and affective psychoses in the New England Family Studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41, 817–823.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.), Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Press.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G.J. (1974). Working memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (pp. 47–90). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Baune, B.T., Miller, R., McAfoose, J., Johnson, M., Quirk, F., & Mitchell, D. (2010). The role of cognitive impairment in general functioning in major depression. Psychiatry Research, 176, 183–189.Google Scholar
Bearden, C.E., Hoffman, K.M., & Cannon, T.D. (2001). The neuropsychology and neuroanatomy of bipolar affective disorder: A critical review. Bipolar Disorders, 3, 106–150.Google Scholar
Bearden, C.E., Glahn, D.C., Monkul, E.S., Barrett, J., Najt, P.N., Villarreal, V., & Soares, J.C. (2006). Patterns of memory impairment in bipolar disorder and unipolar major depression. Psychiatry Research, 142, 139–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belanoff, J.K., Kalehzan, M., Sund, B., Fleming Ficek, S.K., & Schatzberg, A.F. (2001). Cortisol activity and cognitive changes in psychotic major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1612–1616.Google Scholar
Berrettini, W.H. (2000). Are schizophrenic and bipolar disorders related? A review of family and molecular studies. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 531–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bora, E., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C. (2009). Cognitive endophenotypes of bipolar disorder: A meta-analysis of neuropsychological deficits in euthymic patients and their first-degree relatives. Journal of Affective Disorders, 113, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bora, E., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C. (2010). Cognitive impairment in affective psychoses: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36, 112–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bora, E., Lin, A., Wood, S.J, Yung, A.R., McGorry, P.D., & Pantelis, C. (2014). Cognitive deficits in youth with familial and clinical high risk to psychosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 130, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdick, K.E., Goldberg, J.F., Harrow, M., Faull, R.N., & Malhotra, A.K. (2006). Neurocognition as a stable endophenotype in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194, 255–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdick, K.E., Gunawardane, N., Woodberry, K., & Malhotra, A.K. (2009). The role of general intelligence as an intermediate phenotype for neuropsychiatric disorders. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 14, 299–311.Google Scholar
Burdick, K.E., Goldberg, T.E., Cornblatt, B.A., Keefe, R.S., Gopin, C.B., DeRosse, P., & Malhotra, A.K (2011). The MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery in patients with bipolar I disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 1587–1592.Google Scholar
Burdick, K.E., Russo, M., Frangou, S., Mahon, K., Braga, R.J, Shanahan, M., & Malhotra, A.K. (2014). Empirical evidence for discrete neurocognitive subgroups in bipolar disorder: Clinical implications. Psychological Medicine, 44, 3083–3096.Google Scholar
Cahill, C.M., Green, M.J., Jairam, R., & Malhi, G.S. (2007). Do cognitive deficits in juvenile bipolar disorder persist into adulthood? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195, 891–896.Google Scholar
Chapman, L.J., & Chapman, J.P. (1978). The measurement of differential deficit. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 14, 303–311.Google Scholar
Chapman, L.J., Chapman, J.P., & Raulin, M.L. (1976). Scales for physical and social anhedonia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 374–382.Google Scholar
Chapman, L.J., Chapman, J.P., & Raulin, M.L. (1978). Perceptual aberration in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 399–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J.D., Barch, D.M., Carter, C., & Servan-Schreiber, D. (1999). Context-processing deficits in schizophrenia: Converging evidence from three theoretically motivated cognitive tasks. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 120–133.Google Scholar
Cornblatt, B., Risch, N.J., Faris, G., Friedman, D., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1988). The Continuous Performance Test, identical pairs version (CPT-IP): I. New findings about sustained attention in normal families. Psychiatry Research, 26, 223–238.Google Scholar
Craddock, N., O’Donovan, M.C., & Owen, M.J. (2006). Genes for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder? Implications for psychiatric nosology. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32, 9–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric GWAS Consortium. (2013). Identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: A genome-wide analysis. The Lancet, 381, 1371–1379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dean, K., Stevens, H., Mortensen, P.B., Murray, R.M., Walsh, E., & Pedersen, C.B. (2010). Full spectrum of psychiatric outcomes among offspring with parental history of mental disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 822–829.Google Scholar
Dennis, M., Francis, D.J., Cirino, P.T., Schachar, R., Barnes, M.A., & Fletcher, J.A. (2009). Why IQ is not a covariate in cognitive studies of neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15, 331–343.Google Scholar
Derogatis, L.R. (1993). Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90R). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.Google Scholar
Dickstein, D.P., Treland, J.E., Snow, J., McClure, E.B., Mehta, M.S., Towbin, K.E., & Leibenluft, E. (2004). Neuropsychological performance in pediatric bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 32–39.Google Scholar
Diwadkar, V.A., Goradia, D., Hosanagar, A., Mermon, D., Montrose, D.M., Birmaher, B., & Keshavan, M.S. (2011). Working memory and attention deficits in adolescent offspring of schizophrenia or bipolar patients: Comparing vulnerability markers. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 35, 1349–1354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doyle, A.E., Wilens, T.E., Kwon, A., Seidman, L.J., Faraone, S.V., Fried, R., & Biederman, J. (2005). Neuropsychological functioning in youth with bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 540–548.Google Scholar
Doyle, A.E., Wozniak, J., Wilens, T.E., Henin, A., Seidman, L.J., Petty, C., & Biederman, J. (2009). Neurocognitive impairment in unaffected siblings of youth with bipolar disorder. Psychological Medicine, 39, 1253–1263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eckblad, M., & Chapman, L.J. (1983). Magical ideation as an indicator of schizotypy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 215–255.Google Scholar
Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L., Cornblatt, B.A., Rock, D., Roberts, S., Bell, M., & West, A. (1993). The New York High-Risk Project: Anhedonia, attentional deviance, and psychopathology. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 141–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L., Rock, D., Roberts, S.A., Janal, M., Kestenbaum, C., Cornblatt, B., & Gottesman, I.I. (2000). Attention, memory, and motor skills as childhood predictors of schizophrenia-related psychoses: The New York High-Risk Project. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1416–1422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ettinger, U., Mohr, C., Gooding, D.C., Cohen, A.S., Rapp, A., Haenschel, C., & Park, S. (2015). Cognition and brain function in schizotypy: A selective review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41(Suppl. 2), S417–S426.Google Scholar
Faraone, S.V., Seidman, L.J., Kremen, W.S., Pepple, J.R., Lyons, M.J., & Tsuang, M.T. (1995). Neuropsychological functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: A diagnostic efficiency analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 286–304.Google Scholar
Ferrier, I.N., Stanton, B.R., Kelly, T.P., & Scott, J. (1999). Neuropsychological function in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 246–251.Google Scholar
Fleming, S.K., Blasey, C., & Schatzberg, A.F. (2004). Neuropsychological correlates of psychotic features in major depressive disorders: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 38, 27–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P., Deste, G., Smieskova, R., Barlati, G., Yung, A.R., Howes, O., & Borgwardt, S. (2012). Cognitive functioning in prodromal psychosis: A meta-analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geller, B., Zimmerman, B., Williams, M., & Frazier, J. (1994). WASH-UKSADS: Washington University at St. Louis Kiddie and Young Adult Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia—Lifetime and Present Episode Version for DSM-IV. St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Gitlin, M.J., Swendsen, J., Heller, T.L., & Hammen, C. (1995). Relapse and impairment in bipolar disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 635–640.Google ScholarPubMed
Giuliano, A.J., Li, H., Mesholam-Gately, R.I., Sorenson, S.M., Woodberry, K.A., & Seidman, L.J. (2012). Neurocognition in the psychosis risk syndrome: A quantitative and qualitative review. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 18, 399–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glahn, D.C., Bearden, C.E., Barguil, M., Barrett, J., Reichenberg, A., Bowden, C.L., & Velligan, D.I. (2007). The neurocognitive signature of psychotic bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 910–916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glatt, S.J., Stone, W.S., Faraone, S.V., Seidman, L.J., & Tsuang, M.T. (2006). Psychopathology, personality traits, and social development of young first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 189, 337–345.Google Scholar
Goldman-Rakic, P.S. (1991). Prefrontal cortical dysfunction in schizophrenia: The relevance of working memory. In B.J. Carroll & J.E. Barnett (Eds.), Psychopathology and the brain (pp. 1–23). New York, NY: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Goldstein, J.M., Buka, S.L., Seidman, L.J., & Tsuang, M.T. (2010). Specificity of familial transmission of schizophrenia psychosis spectrum and affective psychoses in the New England family study’s high-risk design. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 458–467.Google Scholar
Gooding, D.C., Matts, C.W., & Rollmann, E.A. (2006). Sustained attention deficits in relation to psychometrically identified schizotypy: Evaluating a potential endophenotypic marker. Schizophrenia Research, 82, 27–37.Google Scholar
Gruber, S.A., Rosso, I.M., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2008). Neuropsychological performance predicts clinical recovery in bipolar patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 105, 253–260.Google Scholar
Gur, R.E., Calkins, M.E., Gur, R.C., Horan, W.P., Nuechterlein, K.H., Seidman, L.J., & Stone, W.S. (2007). The consortium on the genetics of schizophrenia: Neurocognitive endophenotypes. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33, 49–68.Google Scholar
Heinrichs, R., & Zakzanis, K. (1998). Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: A quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology, 12, 426–445.Google Scholar
Hill, S.K., Reilly, J.L., Keefe, R.S.E., Gold, J.M., Bishop, J.R., Gershon, E.S., & Sweeney, J.A. (2013). Neuropsychological impairments in schizophrenia and psychotic bipolar disorder: Findings from the Bipolar-Schizophrenia Network on Intermediate Phenotypes (B-SNIP) Study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 1275–1284.Google Scholar
Hollingshead, A.B. (1975). Four factor index of social status. New Haven, CT: Yale University Department of Sociology.Google Scholar
Huang, S., Seidman, L.J., Rossi, S., & Ahveninen, J. (2013). Distinct cortical networks activated by auditory attention and working memory load. Neuroimage, 83, 1098–1108.Google Scholar
Ivleva, E.I., Bidesi, A.S., Keshavan, M.S., Pearlson, G.D., Meda, S.A., Dodig, D., & Tamminga, C.A. (2013). Gray matter volume as an intermediate phenotype for psychosis: Bipolar-Schizophrenia Network on Intermediate Phenotypes (B-SNIP). American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 1285–1296.Google Scholar
Keefe, R.S.E., Perkins, D.O., Gu, H., Zipursky, R.B., Christensen, B.K., & Lieberman, J.A. (2006). A longitudinal study of neurocognitive function in individuals at-risk for psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 88, 26–35.Google Scholar
Keshavan, M.S., Morris, D.W., Sweeney, J.A., Pearlson, G., Thaker, G., Seidman, L.J., & Tamminga, C. (2011). A dimensional approach to the psychosis spectrum between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: The Schizo-Bipolar Scale. Schizophrenia Research, 133, 250–254.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. (1919). Dementia praecox and paraphrenia. Edinburgh, Scotland: E. & S. Livingstone.Google Scholar
Kremen, W.S., Seidman, L.J., Faraone, S.V., Pepple, J.R., Lyons, M.J., & Tsuang, M.T. (1995). The “3 Rs” and neuropsychological function in schizophrenia: A test of the matching fallacy in biological relatives. Psychiatry Research, 56, 135–143.Google Scholar
Kremen, W.S., Seidman, L.J., Faraone, S.V., Toomey, R., & Tsuang, M.T. (2000). The paradox of normal neuropsychological function in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 743–752.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kremen, W.S., Seidman, L.J., Faraone, S.V., Toomey, R., & Tsuang, M.T. (2004). Heterogeneity of schizophrenia: A study of individual neuropsychological profiles. Schizophrenia Research, 71, 307–314.Google Scholar
Lewandowski, K.E., Cohen, B.M., & Ongur, D. (2011). Evolution of neuropsychological dysfunction during the course of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Psychological Medicine, 41, 225–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maalouf, F.T., Klein, C., Clark, L., Sahakian, B.J., Labarbara, E.J., Versace, A., &Hassel, S., Almeida, J.R., & Phillips, M.L. (2010). Impaired sustained attention and executive dysfunction: Bipolar disorder versus depression-specific markers of affective disorders. Neuropsychologia, 48, 1862–1868.Google Scholar
Maxwell, M. (1996). Family Instrument for Genetic Studies (FIGS). NIMH: Clinical Neurogenetics Branch, Intramural Research Program.Google Scholar
Mayer, W., Zobel, A., & Wagner, M. (2007). Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: Differences and overlaps. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20, 417–432.Google Scholar
Maziade, M., Rouleau, N., Gingras, N., Boutin, P., Paradis, M., Jomphe, V., & Roy, M. (2009). Shared neurocognitive dysfunctions in young offspring at extreme risk for schizophrenia or bipolar disorder in Eastern Quebec multigenerational families. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 35, 919–930.Google Scholar
McIntosh, A.M., Job, D.E., Moorhead, W.J., Harrison, L.K., Whalley, H.C., Johnstone, E.C., & Lawrie, S.M. (2006). Genetic liability to schizophrenia or bipolar disorder and its relationship to brain structure. American Journal of Medical Genetics B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 141, 76–83.Google Scholar
Meehl, P.E. (1970). Nuisance variables and the ex post facto design. In M. Radner & S. Winokur (Eds.), Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science (pp. 373–402). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Mesholam-Gately, R., Giuliano, A.J., Faraone, S.V., Goff, K.P., & Seidman, L.J. (2009). Neurocognition in first-episode schizophrenia: A meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology, 23, 315–336.Google Scholar
Michel, C., Ruhrmann, S., Schimmelmann, B.G., Klosterkotter, J., & Schulze-Lutter, F. (2014). A stratified model for psychosis prediction in clinical practice. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40, 1533–1542.Google Scholar
Murrough, J.W., Iacoviello, B., Neumeister, A., Charney, D.S., & Iosifescu, D.V. (2011). Cognitive dysfunction in depression: Neurocircuitry and new therapeutic strategies. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 96, 553–563.Google Scholar
Murray, R.M., Sham, P., van Os, J., Zanelli, J., Cannon, M., & McDonald, C. (2004). A developmental model for similarities and dissimilarities between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 71, 405–416.Google Scholar
Nurnberger, J.I., Blehar, M.C., Kaufmann, C.A., York-Cooler, C., Simpson, S.G., Harkavy Friedman, J., & Kirch, D. (1994). Diagnostic interview for genetic studies (DIGS): Rationale, unique features, and training. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 849–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, S., Holzman, P.S., & Goldman-Rakic, P.S. (1995). Spatial working memory deficits in the relatives of schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 821–828.Google Scholar
Park, S., & Gooding, D.C. (2014). Working memory impairment as an endophenotypic marker of a schizophrenia diathesis. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition, 1, 127–136.Google ScholarPubMed
Phillips, L.K., & Seidman, L.J. (2008). Emotion processing in persons at risk for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34, 888–903.Google Scholar
Pousada-Casal, A. (2010). Study about problem solving and working memory in bipolar disorder patients in euthymia. Madrid: University Complutense of Madrid.Google Scholar
Rasic, D., Hajek, T., Alda, A., & Uher, R. (2014). Risk of mental illness in offspring of parents with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis of family high-risk studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40, 28–38.Google Scholar
Reichenberg, A., Harvey, P.D., Bowie, C.R., Mojtabai, R., Rabinowitz, J., Heaton, R.K., & Bromet, E. (2009). Neuropsychological function and dysfunction in schizophrenia and psychotic affective disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 35, 1022–1029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Keefe, R.S.E., Murray, R.M., & Moffitt, T.E. (2010). Static and dynamic cognitive deficits in childhood preceding adult schizophrenia: A 30-year study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 160–169.Google Scholar
Riecher-Rossler, A., Pflueger, M.O., Aston, J., Borgwardt, S.J., Brewer, W.J., Gschwandtner, U., & Stieglitz, R.-D. (2009). Efficacy of using cognitive status in predicting psychosis: A 7-year follow-up. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 1023–1030.Google Scholar
Rosso, I.M., Makris, N., Thermenos, H.W., Hodge, S.M., Brown, A., Kennedy, D., & Seidman, L.J. (2010). Regional prefrontal cortex gray matter volumes in youth at familial risk for schizophrenia from the Harvard Adolescent High Risk Study. Schizophrenia Research, 123, 15–21.Google Scholar
Rosvold, H.E., Mirsky, A.F., Sarason, I., Bransome, E.D., & Beck, L.H. (1956). A continuous performance test of brain damage. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 20, 343–350.Google Scholar
Sánchez-Morla, E.M., Barabash, A., Martínez-Vizcaíno, V., Tabarés-Seisdedos, R., Balanzá-Martínez, V., Cabranes-Díaz, J.A., & Gómez, J.L. (2009). Comparative study of neurocognitive function in euthymic bipolar patients and stabilized schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Research, 169, 220–228.Google Scholar
Scala, S., Pousada, A., Stone, W.S., Thermenos, H.W., Manschreck, T.C., Tsuang, M.T., & Seidman, L.J. (2013). Verbal and visual-spatial memory impairment in youth at familial high risk for schizophrenia or affective psychosis: A pilot study. Schizophrenia Research, 144, 122–128.Google Scholar
Schatzberg, A.F., Posener, J.A., DeBattista, C., Kalehzan, B.M., Rothschild, A.J., & Shear, P.K. (2000). Neuropsychological deficits in psychotic versus nonpsychotic major depression and no mental illness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1095–1100.Google Scholar
Schouws, S.N., Zoeteman, J.B., Comijs, H.C., Stek, M.L., & Beekman, A.T. (2007). Cognitive functioning in elderly patients with early onset bipolar disorder. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22, 856–861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schubert, E.W., & McNeil, T.F. (2005). Neuropsychological impairment and its neurological correlates in adult offspring with heightened risk for schizophrenia and affective psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 758–766.Google Scholar
Schubert, E.W., & McNeil, T.F. (2007). Neurobehavioral deficits in young adult offspring with heightened risk for psychosis who developed schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 94, 107–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seidman, L.J., Breiter, H., Goodman, J.M., Goldstein, J.M., Woodruff, P., O’Craven, K., & Rosen, B.R. (1998). A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of auditory vigilance with low and high information processing demands. Neuropsychology, 12, 505–518.Google Scholar
Seidman, L.J., Kremen, W.S., Koren, D., Faraone, S.V., Goldstein, J.M., & Tsuang, M.T. (2002). A comparative profile analysis of neuropsychological functioning in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar psychoses. Schizophrenia Research, 53, 31–44.Google Scholar
Seidman, L.J., Giuliano, A.J., Smith, C.W., Stone, W.S., Glatt, S.J., Meyer, E., & Cornblatt, B. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in adolescents and young adults at genetic risk for schizophrenia and affective psychoses: Results from the Harvard and Hillside adolescent high risk studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32, 507–524.Google Scholar
Seidman, L.J., Thermenos, H.W., Koch, J.K., Ward, M., Breiter, H., Goldstein, J.M., & Tsuang, M.T. (2007). Auditory verbal working memory load and thalamic activation in non-psychotic relatives of persons with schizophrenia: An FMRI replication. Neuropsychology, 21, 599–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seidman, L.J., Giuliano, A.J., Meyer, E.C., Addington, J., Cadenhead, K.S., Cannon, T.D., & Cornblatt, B. (2010). Neuropsychology of the prodrome to psychosis in the NAPLS consortium: Relationship to family history and conversion to psychosis. Archives General Psychiatry, 67, 578–588.Google Scholar
Seidman, L.J., Meyer, E., Giuliano, A.J., Breiter, H., Goldstein, J.M., Kremen, W.S., & Faraone, S.V. (2012). Auditory working memory impairments in individuals at familial high risk for schizophrenia. Neuropsychology, 26, 288–303.Google Scholar
Seidman, L.J., Cherkerzian, S., Goldstein, J.M., Agnew-Blais, J., Tsuang, M.T., & Buka, S.L. (2013). Neuropsychological performance and family history in children at age 7 who develop adult schizophrenia or bipolar psychosis in the New England High-Risk Family Study. Psychological Medicine, 43, 119–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sitskoorn, M., Aleman, A., Ebisch, S., Appels, M., & Kahn, R. (2004). Cognitive deficits in relatives of patients with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 71, 285–295.Google Scholar
Snitz, B.E., Macdonald, A.W. III, & Carter, C.S. (2006). Cognitive deficits in unaffected first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients: A meta-analytic review of putative endophenotypes. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32, 179–194.Google Scholar
Sperry, S.H., O’Connor, L.K., Ongur, D., Cohen, B.M., Keshavan, M.S., & Lewandowski, K.E. (2015). Measuring cognition in bipolar disorder with psychosis using the MATRICS consensus cognitive battery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21, 468–472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spring, B. (1985). Distractibility as a marker of vulnerability to schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 509–512.Google Scholar
Thermenos, H.W., Seidman, L.J., Breiter, H., Goldstein, J.M., Goodman, J.M., Poldrack, R., & Tsuang, M.T. (2004). Functional MRI during auditory verbal working memory in non-psychotic relatives of persons with schizophrenia: A pilot study. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 490–500.Google Scholar
Tohen, M., Hennen, J., Zarate, C.M. Jr., Baldessarini, R.J., Strakowski, S.M., Stoll, A.L., & Cohen, B.M. (2000). Two-year syndromal and functional recovery in 219 cases of first-episode major affective disorder with psychotic features. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 220–228.Google Scholar
Trandafir, A., Meary, A., Schurhoff, F., Leboyer, M., & Szoke, A. (2006). Memory tests in first-degree adult relatives of schizophrenic patients: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 81, 217–226.Google Scholar
Van Gorp, W.G., Altshuler, L., Theberge, D.C., Wilkins, J., & Dixon, W. (1988). Cognitive impairment in euthymic bipolar patients with and without prior alcohol dependence: A preliminary study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 41–46.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1991). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd ed.), San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ((3rd ed.), San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, G. (1993). Wide Range Achievement Test, Administration Manual ((3rd ed.), Wilmington, DE: Wide Range, Inc.Google Scholar
Woodberry, K., Giuliano, A.J., & Seidman, L.J. (2008). Premorbid IQ in schizophrenia: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 579–587.Google Scholar
Zhang, R., Picchioni, M., Allen, A., & Toulopoulou, T. (2016). Working memory in unaffected relatives of patients with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin doi:10.1093/schbul/sbv221 [Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar