Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T13:16:30.621Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Influence of Educational Background, Childhood Socioeconomic Environment, and Language Use on Cognition among Spanish-Speaking Latinos Living Near the US–Mexico Border

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 September 2021

Lily Kamalyan Open the ORCID record for Lily Kamalyan [Opens in a new window] ,
Lesley A. Guareña ,
Mirella Díaz-Santos ,
Paola Suarez ,
Mariana Cherner ,
Marlen Y. García Alcorn ,
Anya Umlauf ,
Donald R. Franklin ,
Monica Rivera Mindt  and
Lidia Artiola i Fortuny
...Show all authors
Lily Kamalyan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA San Diego State University/University of California San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, USA
Lesley A. Guareña
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA Department of Medicine, Division of Geriatrics, Gerontology and Palliative Care, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
Mirella Díaz-Santos
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Hispanic Neuropsychiatric Center of Excellence, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Paola Suarez
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Hispanic Neuropsychiatric Center of Excellence, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Mariana Cherner
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
Marlen Y. García Alcorn
Affiliation:
Advancing Diversity through Aging Research Program, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
Anya Umlauf
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
Donald R. Franklin
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
Monica Rivera Mindt
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology & Latino American and Latino Studies Institute, Fordham University, Bronx, NY, USA
Lidia Artiola i Fortuny
Affiliation:
Private Practice, Tucson, AZ, USA
Robert K. Heaton
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
María J. Marquine*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA Department of Medicine, Division of Geriatrics, Gerontology and Palliative Care, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
*
*Correspondence and reprint requests to: María J. Marquine, PhD., Department of Psychiatry, UCSD School of Medicine, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0603, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objectives:

We investigated the impact of culturally relevant social, educational, and language factors on cognitive test performance among Spanish speakers living near the US–Mexico border.

Methods:

Participants included 254 healthy native Spanish speakers from the Neuropsychological Norms for the US–Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project (Age: M = 37.3, SD = 10.4; Education: M = 10.7, SD = 4.3; 59% Female). A comprehensive neuropsychological battery was administered in Spanish. Individual test scaled scores and T-scores (based on region-specific norms adjusted for age, education, and sex) were averaged to create Global Mean Scaled and T-scores. Measures of culturally relevant factors included a self-reported indicator of educational quality/access (proportion of education in Spanish-speaking country, quality of school/classroom setting, stopped attending school to work), childhood socioeconomic environment (parental education, proportion of time living in Spanish-speaking country, childhood socioeconomic and health status, access to basic resources, work as a child), and Spanish/English language use and fluency.

Results:

Several culturally relevant variables were significantly associated with unadjusted Global Scaled Scores in univariable analyses. When using demographically adjusted T-scores, fewer culturally relevant characteristics were significant. In multivariable analyses, being bilingual (p = .04) and working as a child for one’s own benefit compared to not working as a child (p = .006) were significantly associated with higher Global Mean T-score, accounting for 9% of variance.

Conclusions:

Demographically adjusted normative data provide a useful tool for the identification of brain dysfunction, as these account for much of the variance of sociocultural factors on cognitive test performance. Yet, certain culturally relevant variables still contributed to cognitive test performance above and beyond basic demographics, warranting further investigation.

Keywords

Spanish-speakingNeurocognitionAssessmentLanguageEducationSociocultural
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 28 , Issue 8 , September 2022 , pp. 876 - 890
Copyright
Copyright © INS. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Acevedo, A., Loewenstein, D.A., Agrón, J., & Duara, R. (2007). Influence of sociodemographic variables on neuropsychological test performance in Spanish-speaking older adults. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29, 530–544. doi: 10.1080/13803390600814740 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arango-Lasprilla, J., Rivera, D., Ramos-Usuga, D., Vergara-Moragues, E., Montero-López, E., Díaz, L.A., … Ferrer-Cascales, R. (2017). Trail making test: normative data for the Latin American Spanish-speaking pediatric population. NeuroRehabilitation, 41, 627–637. doi: 10.3233/nre-172247 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Artiola i Fortuny, L., Heaton, R.K., & Hermosillo, D. (1998). Neuropsychological comparisons of Spanish-speaking participants from the US-Mexico border region versus Spain. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 4, 363–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Artiola i Fortuny, L., Hermosillo, D., Heaton, R.K., & Pardee, R.E. III. (1999). Manual de normas y procedimientos para la batería neuropsicológica en Español. Tucson, AZ: m Press.Google Scholar
Artiola i Fortuny, L. & Mullaney, H.A. (1997). Neuropsychology with Spanish speakers: Language use and proficiency issues for test development. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19, 615–622. doi: 10.1080/01688639708403747 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benedict, R.H., Schretlen, D., Groninger, L., Dobraski, M., & Shpritz, B. (1996). Revision of the brief visuospatial memory test: Studies of normal performance, reliability, and validity. Psychological Assessment, 8(2), 145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benton, A.L., Hamsher, K., & Sivan, A.B. (1994). Multilingual Aphasia Examination: Manual of Instructions. Iowa City, IA: AJA Associates.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Abutalebi, J., Bak, T.H., Burke, D.M., & Kroll, J.F. (2016). Aging in two languages: Implications for public health. Ageing Research Reviews, 27, 56–60. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2016.03.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F.I.M., Green, D.W, & Gollan, T.H. (2009). Bilingual minds. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 10, 89–129. doi: 10.1177/1529100610387084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boone, K., Victor, T., Wen, J., Razani, J., & Pontón, M. (2007). The association between neuropsychological scores and ethnicity, language, and acculturation variables in a large patient population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 355–365. doi: 10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.010 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, J. & Benedict, R. (2001). Hopkins Verbal Learning Test- Revised. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.Google Scholar
Brown, A. & Lopez, M.H. (2019, December 31). Mapping the Latino Population, By State, County and City. Retrieved January 12, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/2013/08/29/mapping-the-latino-population-by-state-county-and-city/ Google Scholar
Cherner, M., Marquine, M.J., Umlauf, A., Morlett Paredes, A., Rivera Mindt, M., Suárez, P., … Heaton, R.K. (2020). Neuropsychological norms for the U.S.-Mexico border region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project: methodology and sample characteristics. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 253–268. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2019.1709661 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daugherty, J.C., Puente, A.E., Fasfous, A.F., Hidalgo-Ruzzante, N., & Pérez-Garcia, M. (2017). Diagnostic mistakes of culturally diverse individuals when using North American neuropsychological tests. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 24, 16–22. doi: 10.1080/23279095.2015.1036992 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Bruin, A., Treccani, B., & Della Sala, S. (2015). Cognitive advantage in bilingualism: an example of publication bias? Psychological Science, 26, 99–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeFilippis, N.A. & McCampbell, E. (1979). Manual for the Booklet Category Test. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Díaz-Santos, M., Suárez, P.A., Marquine, M.J., Umlauf, A., Rivera Mindt, M., Artiola i Fortuny, L., … Cherner, M. (2020). Updated demographically adjusted norms for the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-revised and Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-revised in Spanish-speakers from the U.S.-Mexico border region: the NP-NUMBRS project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 374–395. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2020.1861329 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Echemendia, R.J. & Harris, J.G. (2004). Neuropsychological test use with Hispanic/Latin populations in the United States: Part II of a National survey. Applied Neuropsychology, 11, 4–12. doi: 10.1207/s15324826an1101_2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flores, I., Casaletto, K.B., Marquine, M.J., Umlauf, A., Moore, D.J., Mungas, D., … & Heaton, R.K. (2017). Performance of Hispanics and Non-Hispanic Whites on the NIH toolbox cognition battery: the roles of ethnicity and language backgrounds. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31, 783–797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujishiro, K., Xu, J., & Gong, F. (2010). What does “occupation” represent as an indicator of socioeconomic status?: exploring occupational prestige and health. Social Science & Medicine, 71, 2100–2107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gasquoine, P., Croyle, K., Cavazos-Gonzalez, C., & Sandoval, O. (2007). Language of administration and neuropsychological test performance in neurologically intact Hispanic American bilingual adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 991–1001. doi: 10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.003 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glymour, M.M. (2004). Identifying Social Determinants of Old Age Cognitive Function. Cambridge, MA: Harvard School of Public Health.Google Scholar
Glymour, M.M., Kawachi, I., Jencks, C.S., & Berkman, L.F. (2008). Does childhood schooling affect old age memory or mental status? Using state schooling laws as natural experiments. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 62, 532–537. doi: 10.1136/jech.2006.059469 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glymour, M.M. & Manly, J.J. (2008). Lifecourse social conditions and racial and ethnic patterns of cognitive aging. Neuropsychology Review, 18, 223–254. doi: 10.1007/s11065-008-9064-z CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gollan, T.H, Montoya, R., Cera, C., & Sandoval, T. (2008). More use almost always means a smaller frequency effect: aging, bilingualism, and the weaker links hypothesis. Journal of Memory and Language, 58, 787–814.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gollan, T.H., Montoya, R.I., & Werner, G.A. (2002). Semantic and letter fluency in Spanish-English bilinguals. Neuropsychology, 16, 562–576. doi: 10.1037/0894-4105.16.4.562 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gollan, T.H., Salmon, D.P., Montoya, R.I., & Galasko, D.R. (2011). Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics. Neuropsychologia, 49, 3826–3830. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.09.041 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gollan, T.H., Weissberger, G.H., Runnqvist, E., Montoya, R.I., & Cera, C.M. (2012). Self-ratings of spoken language dominance: A Multilingual Naming Test (MINT) and preliminary norms for young and aging Spanish–English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15, 594–615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González, H.M., Tarraf, W., Bowen, M.E., Johnson-Jennings, M.D., & Fisher, G.G. (2013). What do parents have to do with my cognitive reserve life course perspectives on twelve-year cognitive decline. Neuroepidemiology, 41, 101–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González, H.M., Tarraf, W., Gouskova, N., Gallo, L.C., Penedo, F.J., Davis, S.M., … Mosley, T.H. (2015). Neurocognitive function among middle-aged and older Hispanic/Latinos: results from the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 30, 68–77. doi: 10.1093/arclin/acu066 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gooding, A., Seider, T., Marquine, M., Suárez, P., Umlauf, A., Rivera Mindt, M., … Cherner, M. (2020). Demographically-adjusted norms for the paced auditory serial addition test and letter number sequencing test in Spanish-speaking adults: results from the neuropsychological norms for the U.S.-Mexico border region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) Project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 324–338. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2019.1711199 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gronwall, D.M.A. (1977). Paced auditory serial addition task: a measure of recovery from concussion. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 44, 367–373. doi: 10.2466/pms.1977.44.2.367 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, J.G. & Llorente, A.M. (2005). Cultural considerations in the use of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—fourth edition (WISC-IV). In Prifitera, A., Saklofske, D.H., & Weiss, L.G. (Eds.), WISC-IV clinical use and interpretation: Scientist practitioner perspectives (pp. 382–413). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.Google Scholar
Heaton, A., Gooding, A., Cherner, M., Umlauf, A., Franklin, D.R., Rivera Mindt, M., … Marquine, M.J. (2020). Demographically-adjusted norms for the Grooved Pegboard and Finger Tapping tests in Spanish-speaking adults: results from the neuropsychological norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) Project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 396–418. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2020.1713400 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heaton, R.K., Miller, S.W., Taylor, M.J., & Grant, I. (2004). Revised Comprehensive Norms for an Expanded Halstead–Reitan Battery: Demographically Adjusted Neuropsychological Norms for African American and Caucasian Adults. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Kamalyan, L., Hussain, M.A., Diaz, M.M., Umlauf, A., Franklin, D.R., Cherner, M., … Marquine, M.J. (2021). Neurocognitive impairment in Spanish-speaking Latinos living with HIV in the US: application of the neuropsychological norms for the U.S.-Mexico border region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 433–452. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2019.1701084 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, G.A., Turrell, G., Lynch, J.W., Everson, S.A., Helkala, E.L., & Salonen, J.T. (2001). Childhood socioeconomic position and cognitive function in adulthood. International Journal of Epidemiology, 30, 256–263. doi: 10.1093/ije/30.2.256 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kløve, H. (1963). Grooved pegboard. Lafayette, IN: Lafayette Instruments.Google Scholar
Kongs, S.K., Thompson, L.L., Iverson, G.L., & Heaton, R.K. (2000). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test-64 Card Computerized Version. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Krogstad, J.M. (2020). Hispanics have accounted for more than half of total US population growth since 2010. Retrieved November 16, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/07/10/hispanics-have-accounted-for-more-than-half-of-total-u-s-population-growth-since-2010/ Google Scholar
Luo, Y. & Waite, L.J. (2005). The impact of childhood and adult SES on physical, mental, and cognitive well-being in later life. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60, S93–S101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J.J., Byrd, D.A., Touradji, P., & Stern, Y., (2004). Acculturation, reading level, and neuropsychological test performance among African American elders, Applied Neuropsychology, 11, 37–46. doi: 10.1207/s15324826an1101_5 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marquine, M.J., Morlett Paredes, A., Madriaga, C., Blumstein, Y., Umlauf, A., Kamalyan, L., … Cherner, M. (2020a). Demographically-adjusted norms for selected tests of verbal fluency: Results from the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 269–292. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2020.1762931 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marquine, M.J., Rivera Mindt, M., Umlauf, A., Suárez, P., Kamalyan, L., Morlett Paredes, A., … & Cherner, M. (2021). Introduction to the Neuropsychological Norms for the US-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 227–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marquine, M.J., Yassai-Gonzalez, D., Perez-Tejada, A., Umlauf, A., Kamalyan, L., Morlett Paredes, A., … Heaton, R.K. (2020b). Demographically adjusted normative data for the Wisconsin Card sorting test-64 item: results from the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 339–355. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2019.1703042 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matallana, D., Santacruz, C.D., Cano, C., Reyes, P., Samper-Ternent, R., Markides, K.S., … Reyes-Ortiz, C.A. (2010). The relationship between education level and mini-mental state examination domains among older Mexican Americans. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 24, 9–18. doi: 10.1177/0891988710373597 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morlett Paredes, A., Carrasco, J., Kamalyan, L., Cherner, M., Umlauf, A., Rivera Mindt, M., … Marquine, M.J. (2020). Demographically adjusted normative data for the Halstead Category test in a Spanish-speaking adult population: Results from the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 356–373. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2019.1709660 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naeem, K., Filippi, R., Periche-Tomas, E., Papageorgiou, A., & Bright, P. (2018). The importance of socioeconomic status as a modulator of the bilingual advantage in cognitive ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noe-Bustamante, L., Flores, A., & Shah, S. (2019, September 16). Facts on Latinos of Mexican origin in the US Retrieved January 10, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/fact-sheet/u-s-hispanics-facts-on-mexican-originlatinos/ Google Scholar
O’Bryant, S.E., Edwards, M., Johnson, L., Hall, J., Gamboa, A., & O’jile, J. (2018). Texas Mexican American adult normative studies: normative data for commonly used clinical neuropsychological measures for English- and Spanish-speakers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 43, 1–26. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2017.1401628 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olabarrieta-Landa, L., Rivera, D., Galarza-Del-Angel, J., Garza, M., Saracho, C., Rodríguez, W., … Arango-Lasprilla, J. (2015). Verbal fluency tests: normative data for the Latin American Spanish speaking adult population. NeuroRehabilitation, 37, 515–561. doi: 10.3233/nre-151279 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostrosky-Solis, F., Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., Lopez-Arango, G., & Uriel-Mendoza, V. (1998). Neuropsychological test performance in illiterate subjects. Archives for Clinical Neuropsychology, 13, 645–660.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostrosky-Solís, F., Gomez-Perez, M., Matute, E., Rosselli, M., Ardila, A., & Pineda, D. (2007). NEUROPSI ATTENTION AND MEMORY: a neuropsychological test battery in Spanish with norms by age and education level. Applied Neuropsychology, 14, 156–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pontón, M. (2001). Research and assessment issues with Hispanic populations. In Pontón, M. & León-Carrión, J. (Eds.), Neuropsychology and the Hispanic patient: a clinical handbook (pp. 39–58). Mahwah, NJ, USA: Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prior, A. & Gollan, T.H. (2011). Good language-switchers are good task-switchers: evidence from Spanish-English and Mandarin-English bilinguals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 17, 682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raphael, K. (1987). Recall bias: a proposal for assessment and control. International Journal of Epidemiology, 16, 167–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reitan, R.M. & Wolfson, D. (1993). The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery: Theory and Clinical Interpretation (2nd ed.). Tucson, AZ: Neuropsychological Press.Google Scholar
Rhodes, E., Devlin, K.N., Steinberg, L., & Giovannetti, T. (2017). Grit in adolescence is protective of late-life cognition: non-cognitive factors and cognitive reserve. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 24, 321–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ritchie, K., Jaussent, I., Stewart, R., Dupuy, A.M., Courtet, P., Malafosse, A., & Ancelin, M.L. (2011). Adverse childhood environment and late-life cognitive functioning. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 26, 503–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivera, D., Morlett-Paredes, A., Guia, A.P., Escher, M.I., Soto-Añari, M., Arelis, A.A., … Arango-Lasprilla, J. (2017). Stroop color-word interference test: normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population. NeuroRehabilitation, 41, 605–616. doi: 10.3233/nre-172246 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivera Mindt, M., Arentoft, A., Germano, K.K., D’Aquila, E., Scheiner, D., Pizzirusso, M., … Gollan, T.H. (2008). Neuropsychological, cognitive, and theoretical considerations for evaluation of bilingual individuals. Neuropsychology Review, 18, 255–268. doi: 10.1007/s11065-008-9069-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivera Mindt, M., Byrd, D., Saez, P., & Manly, J. (2010). Increasing culturally competent neuropsychological services for ethnic minority populations: a call to action. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24, 429–453. doi: 10.1080/13854040903058960 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivera Mindt, M., Marquine, M.J., Aghvinian, M., Scott, T.M., Cherner, M., Morlett Paredes, A., … Heaton, R.K. (2020). Demographically-adjusted norms for the processing speed subtests of the WAIS-III in a Spanish-speaking adult population: Results from the Neuropsychological Norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 293–307. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2020.1723707 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosselli, M. & Ardila, A. (2003). The impact of culture and education on non-verbal neuropsychological measurements: a critical review. Brain and Cognition, 52, 326–333. doi: 10.1016/s0278-2626(03)00170-2 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saez, P.A., Bender, H.A., Barr, W.B., Mindt, M.R., Morrison, C.E., Hassenstab, J., … Vazquez, B. (2014). The impact of education and acculturation on nonverbal Neuropsychological Test performance among Latino/a patients with Epilepsy. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 21, 108–119. doi: 10.1080/09084282.2013.768996 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samuel, S., Roehr-Brackin, K., Pak, H., & Kim, H. (2018). Cultural effects rather than a bilingual advantage in cognition: a review and an empirical study. Cognitive Science, 42, 2313–2341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, T.M., Morlett Paredes, A., Taylor, M.J., Umlauf, A., Artiola i Fortuny, L., Heaton, R.K., … Rivera Mindt, M. (2020). Demographically-adjusted norms for the WAIS-R Block Design and Arithmetic subtests: results from the Neuropsychological norms for the US-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 419–432. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2019.1707285 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sisco, S., Gross, A.L., Shih, R.A., Sachs, B.C., Glymour, M.M., Bangen, K.J., … Manly, J.J. (2015). The role of early-life educational quality and literacy in explaining racial disparities in cognition in late life. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70, 557–567. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbt133 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soubelet, A. & Salthouse, T.A. (2011). Personality–cognition relations across adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 47, 303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stavans, I. (2018). Latinos in the United States: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strauss, E., Sherman, E.M.S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Suarez, P.A., Díaz-Santos, M., Marquine, M.J., Kamalyan, L., Mindt, M.R., Umlauf, A., … Cherner, M. (2020a). Demographically adjusted norms for the Trail Making Test in native Spanish speakers: results from the neuropsychological norms for the US-Mexico border region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 308–323. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2020.1800099 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suarez, P.A., Gollan, T.H., Heaton, R., Grant, I., Cherner, M., & HNRC Group (2014). Second-language fluency predicts native language Stroop effects: Evidence from Spanish–English bilinguals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20(3), 342–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suárez, P.A., Marquine, M.J., Díaz-Santos, M., Gollan, T., Artiola i Fortuny, L., Rivera Mindt, M., … Cherner, M. (2020b). Native Spanish-speaker’s test performance and the effects of Spanish-English Bilingualism: results from the neuropsychological norms for the U.S.-Mexico Border Region in Spanish (NP-NUMBRS) project. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35, 453–465. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2020.1861330 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Surrain, S. & Luk, G. (2019). Describing bilinguals: a systematic review of labels and descriptions used in the literature between 2005–2015. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22, 401–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Touradji, P., Manly, J., Jacobs, D., & Stern, Y. (2001). Neuropsychological test performance: a study of non-Hispanic White elderly. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 23, 643–649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
US Census American Fact Finding. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/newsroom/facts-for-features/2017/cb17-ff17.pdf Google Scholar
US Census Bureau. (2018, October 4). Hispanic Heritage month 2018. Retrieved January 10, 2020, from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2018/hispanic-heritage-month.html Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1997). WAIS-III: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1981). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised Manual. New York: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Zahodne, L.B., Schofield, P.W., Farrell, M.T., Stern, Y., & Manly, J.J. (2014). Bilingualism does not alter cognitive decline or dementia risk among Spanish-speaking immigrants. Neuropsychology, 28, 238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, Z., Hayward, M.D., & Yu, Y.L. (2016). Life course pathways to racial disparities in cognitive impairment among older Americans. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 57, 184–199. doi: 10.1177/0022146516645925 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed