Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T07:25:32.347Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Hippocampus volume and episodic memory in schizophrenia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 March 2009

ROBERT J. THOMA ,
MOLLIE MONNIG ,
FAITH M. HANLON ,
GREGORY A. MILLER ,
HELEN PETROPOULOS ,
ANDREW R. MAYER ,
RON YEO ,
MATT EULER ,
PER LYSNE  and
SANDRA N. MOSES
...Show all authors
ROBERT J. THOMA*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico MIND Research Network (MRN), Albuquerque, New Mexico Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
MOLLIE MONNIG*
Affiliation:
MIND Research Network (MRN), Albuquerque, New Mexico Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
FAITH M. HANLON
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico MIND Research Network (MRN), Albuquerque, New Mexico
GREGORY A. MILLER
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychology, Psychiatry, and the Beckman Institute, University of Illinois–Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
HELEN PETROPOULOS
Affiliation:
Neuroimaging Research Group, Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
ANDREW R. MAYER
Affiliation:
MIND Research Network (MRN), Albuquerque, New Mexico
RON YEO
Affiliation:
MIND Research Network (MRN), Albuquerque, New Mexico Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
MATT EULER
Affiliation:
MIND Research Network (MRN), Albuquerque, New Mexico Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
PER LYSNE
Affiliation:
MIND Research Network (MRN), Albuquerque, New Mexico Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
SANDRA N. MOSES
Affiliation:
Rotman Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
JOSE M. CAÑIVE
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico New Mexico Veteran Affairs Health Care System (NMVAHCS), Albuquerque, New Mexico
*
*Correspondence and reprint requests to: Robert J. Thoma, Ph.D., Center for Neuropsychological Services, MSC 11 6094, 1 University of New Mexico, 915 Vassar NE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Previous studies of schizophrenia have suggested a linkage between neuropsychological (NP) deficits and hippocampus abnormality. The relationship between hippocampus volume and NP functioning was investigated in 24 patients with chronic schizophrenia and 24 matched healthy controls. Overall intracranial, white and gray matter, and anterior (AH) and posterior (PH) hippocampus volumes were assessed from magnetic resonance images (MRI). NP domains of IQ, attention, and executive function were also evaluated with respect to volumetric measures. It was hypothesized that AH and PH volumes and episodic memory scores would be positively associated in controls and that the schizophrenia group would depart from this normative pattern. NP functioning was impaired overall and AH volume was smaller in the schizophrenia group. In the controls, the hippocampus–memory relationships involved AH and PH, and correlations were significant for verbal memory measures. In the schizophrenia group, positive correlations were constrained to PH. Negative correlations emerged between AH and verbal and visual memory measures. For both groups, cortical volume negatively correlated with age, but a negative correlation between age and hippocampus volume was found only in the schizophrenia group. In this sample of adults with schizophrenia, atypical relationships between regional hippocampus volumes and episodic memory ability were found, as was an atypical negative association between hippocampus volume and age. (JINS, 2009, 15, 182–195.)

Keywords

Magnetic resonance imagingCognitionNeuropsychologyMemoryTemporal lobeAntipsychotic agents
Type
Research Articles
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 15 , Issue 2 , March 2009 , pp. 182 - 195
Copyright
Copyright © INS 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Andreone, N., Tansella, M., Cerini, R., Rambaldelli, G., Versace, A., Marrella, G., Perlini, C., Dusi, N., Pelizza, L., Balestrieri, M., Barbui, C., Nosé, M., Gasparini, A., & Brambilla, P. (2007). Cerebral atrophy and white matter disruption in chronic schizophrenia. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 257, 3–11.Google Scholar
Bayley, P.J., O’Reilly, R.C., Curran, T., & Squire, L.R. (2008). New semantic learning in patients with large medial temporal lobe lesions. Hippocampus, 18, 575–583.Google Scholar
Bilder, R.M., Bogerts, B., Ashtari, M., Wu, H., Alvir, JM., Jody, D., Reiter, G., Bell, L., & Lieberman, J.A. (1995). Anterior hippocampal volume reductions predict frontal lobe dysfunction in first episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 17, 47–58.Google Scholar
Bogerts, B., Ashtari, M., Degreef, G., Alvir, J.M.J., Bilder, R.M., & Lieberman, J.A. (1990). Reduced temporal limbic structure volumes on magnetic resonance images in first episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 35, 1–13.Google Scholar
Bogerts, B., Lieberman, J.A., Ashtari, M., Bilder, R.M., Degreef, G., Lerner, G., Johns, C., & Masiar, S. (1993). Hippocampus-amygdala volumes and psychopathology in chronic schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 33, 236–246.Google Scholar
Brewer, W.J., Francey, S.M., Wood, S.J., Pantelis, C., Phillips, L.J., Yung, A.R., Anderson, V.A., & McGorry, P.D. (2005). Memory impairments identified in people at ultra-high risk for psychosis who later develop first-episode psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 192, 71–78.Google Scholar
Chakos, M.H., Schobel, S.A., Gu, H., Gerig, G., Bradford, D., Charles, C., & Lieberman, J.A. (2005). Duration of illness and treatment effects on hippocampal volume in male patients with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 26–31.Google Scholar
Chapman, L.J., Chapman, J.P., Kwapil, T.R., & Eckblad, M. (1994). Putatively psychosis-prone subjects 10 years later. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 171–183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Conners, C.K. (2000). Conners’ CPT II: Continuous Performance Test II. Computer program for Windows. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
DeLisi, L.E., Hoff, A.L., Schwartz, J.E., Shields, G.W., Halthore, S.N., Gupta, S.M., Henn, F.A., & Anand, A.K. (1991). Brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenic-like psychosis: A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 29, 159–175.Google Scholar
Driscoll, I., Hamilton, D.A., Petropoulos, H., Yeo, R.A., Brooks, W.A., Baumgartner, R.N., & Sutherland, R.J. (2003). The aging hippocampus: Cognitive, biochemical and structural findings. Cerebral Cortex, 13, 1344–1351.Google Scholar
Eckblad, M. & Chapman, L. (1983). Magical ideation as an indicator of schizotypy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 215–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellison-Wright, I., Glahn, D.C., Laird, A.R., Thelen, S.M., & Bullmore, E. (2008). The anatomy of first-episode and chronic schizophrenia: An anatomical likelihood estimation analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry: AJP in Advance, AiA: 1–9.Google Scholar
Eyler, L.T., Jeste, D.V., & Brown, G.G. (2008). Brain response abnormalities during verbal learning among patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 162, 11–25.Google Scholar
First, M.B., Spitzer, R.L, Gibbon, M., & Williams, J.B.W. (1996). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders, Clinician Version (SCID-CV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Gold, J.M., Randolph, C., Carpenter, C.J., Goldberg, T.E., & Weinberger, D.R (1992). Forms of memory failure in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 487–494.Google Scholar
Goldberg, T.E., Torrey, E.F., Berman, K.F., & Weinberger, D.R. (1994). Relations between neuropsychological performance and brain morphological and physiological measures in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 55, 51–61.Google Scholar
Goldberg, T.E., Torrey, E.F., Gold, J.M., Ragland, J.D., Bigelow, L.B., & Weinberger, D.R. (1993). Learning and memory in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 23, 71–85.Google Scholar
Gothelf, D., Soreni, N., Nachman, R.P., Tyano, S., Hiss, Y., Reiner, O., & Weizman, A. (2000). Evidence for the involvement of the hippocampus in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 10, 389––395.Google Scholar
Griffith, H.R., Pyzalski, R.W., Seidenberg, M., & Hermann, B.P. (2004). Memory relationships between MRI volumes and resting PET metabolism of temporal lobe structures. Epilepsy and Behavior, 5, 669–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruzelier, J., Seymour, K., Wilson, L., Jolley, A., & Hirsch, S. (1988). Impairments on neuropsychological tests of temporohippocampal and frontohippocampal functions and word fluency in remitting schizophrenia and affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 623–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gur, R.E., Turetsky, B.I., Cowell, P.E., Finkelman, C., Maany, V., Grossman, R.I., Arnold, S.E., Bilker, W.B., & Gur, R.C. (2000). Temporolimbic volume reductions in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 769–775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanlon, F.M., Weisend, M.P., Yeo, R.A., Huang, M., Lee, R.R., Thoma, R.J., Moses, S.N., Paulson, K.M., Miller, G.A., & Cañive, J.M. (2005). A specific test of hippocampal deficit in schizophrenia. Behavioral Neuroscience, 119, 863–875.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heckers, S., Rauch, S.L., Goff, C.R., Schacter, D.L., Fischman, A.J., & Alpert, N.M. (1998). Impaired recruitment of hippocampus during conscious recollection in schizophrenia. Nature Neuroscience, 1, 318–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hickie, I., Naismith, S., Ward, P.B., Turner, K., Scott, E., Mitchell, P., Wilhelm, K., & Parker, G. (2005). Reduced hippocampal volumes and memory loss in patients with early- and late-onset depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 197–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirayasu, Y., Shenton, M.E., Salisbury, D.F., Dickey, C.C., Fischer, I.A., Mazzoni, P.M., Kisler, T., Arakaki, H., Kwon, J.S., Anderson, J.E., Yurgelun-Todd, D., Tohen, M., & McCarley, R.W. (1998). Lower left temporal lobe MRI volumes in patients with first-episode schizophrenia compared with psychotic patients with first-episode affective disorder and normal subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1384–1391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Honea, R., Crow, T.J., Passingham, D., & Mackay, C.E. (2005). Regional deficits in brain volume in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 2233–2245.Google Scholar
Jessen, F., Scheef, L., Germeshausen, L., Tawo, Y., Kockler, M., Kuhn, K., Maier, W., Schild, H.H., & Heun, R. (2003). Reduced hippocampal activation during encoding and recognition of words in schizophrenia patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1305–1312.Google Scholar
Kramer, J.H., Rosen, H.J., Du, A.-T., Schuff, N., Hollnagel, C., Weiner, M.W., Miller, B.L., & Delis, D.C. (2005). Dissociations in hippocampal and frontal contributions to episodic memory performance. Neuropsychology, 19, 799–805.Google Scholar
Kramer, J.H., Schuff, N., Reed, B.R., Mungas, D., Du, A.-T., Rosen, H.J., Jagust, W.J., Miller, B.L., Weiner, M.W., & Chui, H.C. (2004). Hippocampal volume and retention in Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10, 639–643.Google Scholar
Kuroki, N., Kubicki, M., Nestor, P.G., Salisbury, D.F., Park, H.-J., Levitt, J.J., Woolston, S., Frumin, M., Niznikiewicz, M., Westin, C.-F., Maier, S.E., & Shenton, M.E. (2006). Fornix integrity and hippocampal volume in male schizophrenic patients. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 22–31.Google Scholar
Lieberman, J., Chakos, M., Wu, H., Alvir, J., Hoffman, E., Robinson, D., & Bilder, R. (2001). Longitudinal study of brain morphology in first episode schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 487–499.Google Scholar
Maguire, E.A., Gadian, D.G., Johnsrude, I.S., Good, C.D., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R.S.J., & Frith, C.D. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 97, 4398–4403.Google Scholar
Marsh, L., Harris, D., Lim, K.O., Beal, M., Hoff, A.L., Minn, K., Csernansky, J.G., DeMent, S., Faustman, W.O., Sullivan, E.V., & Pfefferbaum, A. (1997). Structural magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities in men with severe chronic schizophrenia and an early age at clinical onset. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 1104–1112.Google Scholar
McCarley, R.W., Wible, C.G., Frumin, M., Hirayasu, Y., Levitt, J.J., Fischer, I.A., & Shenton, M.E. (1999). MRI anatomy of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1099–1119.Google Scholar
Miller, G.M. & Chapman, J.P. (2001). Misunderstanding analysis of covariance. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 40–48.Google Scholar
Milner, B. (2005). The medial temporal-lobe amnesic syndrome. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 28, 599–611.Google Scholar
Mungas, D., Harvey, D., Reed, B.R., Jagust, W.J., DeCarli, C., Beckett, L., Mack, W.J., Kramer, J.H., Weiner, M.W., Schuff, N., & Chui, H.C. (2005). Longitudinal volumetric MRI change and rate of cognitive decline. Neurology, 65, 565–571.Google Scholar
Narr, K.L., Thompson, P.M., Sharma, T., Moussai, J., Blanton, R., Anvar, B., Edris, A., Krupp, R., Rayman, J., Khaledy, M., & Toga, A.W. (2001). Three-dimensional mapping of temporo-limbic regions and the lateral ventricles in schizophrenia: Gender effects. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 84–97.Google Scholar
Narr, K.L., Thompson, P.M., Szezsko, P., Robinson, D., Jang, S., Woods, R.P., Kim, S., Hayashi, K.M., Asunction, D., Toga, A.W., & Bilder, R.M. (2004). Regional specificity of hippocampal volume reductions in first-episode schizophrenia. NeuroImage, 21, 1563–1575.Google Scholar
Nelson, M.D., Saykin, A.J., Flashman, L.A., & Riordan, H.J. (1998). Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 433–440.Google Scholar
Nemeroff, C.B., Bremner, J.D., Foa, E.B., Mayberg, H.S., North, C.S., & Stein, M.B. (2006). Post-traumatic stress disorder: A state-of-the-science review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nestor, P.G., Kubicki, M., Kuroki, N., Gurrera, R.J., Niznikiewicz, M., Shenton, M.E., & McCarley, R.W. (2007). Episodic memory and neuroimaging of hippocampus and fornix in chronic schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 155, 21–28.Google Scholar
O’Driscoll, G.A., Florencio, P.S., Gagnon, D., Wolff, A.V., Benkelfat, C., Mikula, L., Lal, S., & Evans, A.C. (2001). Amygdala-hippocampal volume and verbal memory in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 107, 75–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Öngür, D., Cullen, T.J., Wolf, D.H., Rohan, M., Barreira, P., Zalesak, M., & Heckers, S. (2006). The neural basis of relational memory deficits in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 356–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pegues, M.P., Rogers, L.J., Amend, D., Vinogradov, S., & Deicken, R.F. (2003). Anterior hippocampal volume reduction in male patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 60, 105–115.Google Scholar
Petersen, R.C., Jack, C.R. Jr, Xu, Y.-C., Waring, S.C., O’Brien, P.C., Smith, G.E., Ivnik, R.J., Tangalos, E.G., Boeve, B.F., & Kokmen, E. (2000). Memory and MRI-based hippocampal volumes in aging and AD. Neurology, 54, 581–587.Google Scholar
Petropoulos, H., Sibbitt, W.L., & Brooks, W.M. (1999). Automated T2 quantitation in neuropsychiatric lupus erythematosus: A marker of active disease. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 9, 39–43.Google Scholar
Reminger, S.L., Kaszniak, A.W., Labiner, D.M., Littrell, L.D., David, B.T., Ryan, L., Herring, A.M., & Kaemingk, K.L. (2004). Bilateral hippocampal volume predicts verbal memory function in temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy & Behavior, 5, 687–695.Google Scholar
Sachdev, P., Brodaty, H., Cheang, D., & Cathcart, S. (2000). Hippocampus and amygdala volumes in elderly schizophrenic patients as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 54, 105–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanfilipo, M., Lafargue, T., Rusinek, H., Arena, L., Loneragan, C., Lautin, A., Feiner, D., Rotrosen, J., & Wolkin, A. (2000). Volumetric measure of the frontal and temporal lobe regions in schizophrenia: Relationship to negative symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 471–480.Google Scholar
Sanfilipo, M., Lafargue, T., Rusinek, H., Arena, L., Loneragan, C., Lautin, A., Rotrosen, J., & Wolkin, A. (2002). Cognitive performance in schizophrenia: Relationship to regional brain volumes and psychiatric symptoms. Psychiatry Research, 116, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saykin, A.J., Gur, R.C., Gur, R.E., Mozley, P.D., Mosley, L.H., Resnick, S.M., Kester, B., & Stafaniak, P. (1991). Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 618–624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saykin, A.J., Shtasel, D.L., Gur, R.E., Kester, D.B., Mozley, L.H., Stafiniak, P., & Gur, R.C. (1994). Neuropsychological deficits in neuroleptic naïve patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 124–131.Google Scholar
Seidman, L.J., Faraone, S.V., Goldstein, J.M., Kremen, W.S., Horton, N.J., Makris, N., Toomey, R., Kennedy, D., Caviness, V.S., & Tsuang, M.T. (2002). Left hippocampal volume as a vulnerability indicator for schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 839–849.Google Scholar
Shenton, M.E., Kikinis, R., Jolesz, F.A., Pollak, S.D., LeMay, M., Wible, C.G., Hokama, H., Martin, J., Metcalf, D., Coleman, M., & McCarley, R.W. (1992). Abnormalities of the left temporal lobe and thought disorder in schizophrenia: A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. New England Journal of Medicine, 327, 604–612.Google Scholar
Shipley, W.C. (1940). A self-administered scale for measuring intellectual impairment and deterioration. Journal of Psychology, 9, 371–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, H., Feldman, P., Bilker, W., & Gur, R.C. (2003). Working memory as a core neuropsychological dysfunction in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1809–1816.Google Scholar
Steen, R.G., Mull, C., McClure, R.Hamer, R.M., & Lieberman, J.A. (2006). Brain volume in first-episode schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 510–518.Google Scholar
Sullivan, E.V., Marsh, L., Mathalon, D.H., Lim, K.O., & Pfefferbaum, A. (1995). Age-related decline in MRI volumes of temporal lobe gray matter but not hippocampus. Neurobiology of Aging, 16, 591–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweatt, J.D. (2004). Hippocampal function in cognition. Psychopharmacology, 174, 99–110.Google Scholar
Szeszko, P.R., Goldberg, E., Gunduz-Bruce, H., Ashtari, M., Robinson, D., Malhotra, A.K., Lencz, T., Bates, J., Crandall, D.T., Kane, J.M., & Bilder, R.M. (2003). Smaller anterior hippocampal formation in antipsychotic-naïve patients with first-episode schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 2190–2197.Google Scholar
Szezsko, P.R., Strous, R.D., Goldman, R.S., Ashtari, M., Knuth, K.H., Lieberman, J.A., & Bilder, R.M. (2002). Neuropsychological correlates of hippocampal volumes in patients experiencing a first episode of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 217–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tamlyn, D., McKenna, P.J., Mortimer, A.M., Lund, C.E., Hammond, S., & Baddeley, A.D. (1992). Memory impairment in schizophrenia: Its extent, affiliations and neuropsychological character. Psychological Medicine, 22, 101–115.Google Scholar
Thoma, R.J., Hanlon, F.M., Moses, S.N., Ricker, D., Huang, M., Edgar, C., Irwin, J., Torres, F., Weisend, M.P., Adler, L.E., Miller, G.A., & Cañive, J.M. (2005). M50 sensory gating predicts negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 73, 311–318.Google Scholar
Thoma, R.J., Hanlon, F.M., Petropoulos, H., Miller, G.A., Moses, S.N., Smith, A., Parks, L., Lundy, S.L., Sanchez, N.M., Jones, A., Huang, M., Weisend, M.P., & Cañive, J.M. (2008). Schizophrenia diagnosis and anterior hippocampal volume make separate contributions to sensory gating. Psychophysiology, 45(6), 926–935.Google Scholar
Torres, I.J., Flashman, L.A., O’Leary, D.S., Swayze, V. II, & Andreasen, N.C. (1997). Lack of an association between delayed memory and hippocampal and temporal lobe size in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 1087–1096.Google Scholar
Toulopoulou, T., Grech, A., Morris, R.G., Schulze, K., McDonald, C., Chapple, B., Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Murray, R.M. (2004). The relationship between volumetric brain changes and cognitive function: A family study on schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 56, 447–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Petten, C. (2004). Relationship between hippocampal volume and memory ability in healthy individuals across the lifespan: Review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychologia, 42, 1394–1413.Google Scholar
Velakoulis, D., Wood, S.J., Wong, M.T.H., McGorry, P.D., Yung, A., Phillips, L., Smith, D., Brewer, W., Proffitt, T., Desmond, P., & Pantelis, C. (2006). Hippocampal and amygdala volumes according to psychosis stage and diagnosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 139–149.Google Scholar
Walhovd, K.B., Fjell, A.M., Reinvang, I., Lundervold, A., Fishl, B., Quinn, B.T., & Dale, A.M. (2004). Size does matter in the long run: Hippocampal and cortical volume predict recall across weeks. Neurology, 63, 1193–1197.Google Scholar
Watson, C., Andermann, F., Gloor, P., Jones-Gotman, M., Peters, T., Evans, A., Olivier, A., Melanson, D., & Leroux, G. (1992). Anatomic basis of amygdaloid and hippocampal volume measurement by magnetic resonance imaging. Neurology, 42, 1743–1750.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised manual. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weiss, A.P., DeWitt, I., Goff, D., Ditman, T., & Heckers, S. (2005). Anterior and posterior hippocampal volumes in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 73, 103–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, T., Cullen, K., Rohrer, L.M., Karatekin, C., Luciana, M., Schmidt, M., Hongwanishkul, D., Kumra, S., Schulz, S.C., & Lim, K.O. (2008). Limbic structures and networks in children and adolescents with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34, 18–29.Google Scholar
Wright, I.C., Rabe-Hesketh, S., Woodruff, P.W.R., David, A.S., Murray, R.M., & Bullmore, E.T. (2000). Meta-analysis of regional brain volumes in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 16–25.Google Scholar
Yeo, R.A., Gangestad, S.G., & Thoma, R.J. (2007). Developmental instability and individual variation in brain development: Implications for the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 245–249.Google Scholar
Zipursky, R.B., Lambe, E.K., Kapur, S., & Mikulis, D.J. (1998). Cerebral gray matter volume deficits in first episode psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 540–546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed