The aim of this paper is to analyze the state of the quantity theory in the United States prior to the publication of Irving Fisher’s The Purchasing Power of Money in 1911. We start by presenting the participants in the monetary debate. Next, we analyze the controversies regarding prices, purchasing power of money, and credit, prior to the Gold Standard Act of 1900, in particular the opposing views of Francis Amasa Walker and James Laurence Laughlin. We then go on to study of the restatement of the quantity theory at the beginning of the twentieth century, through the introduction of credit in the analysis and the statistical tests of the exchange equations. Finally, we study the problems and management of the gold standard, focusing on the elasticity of money supply, the characteristics of the gold exchange standard, and the contrast between the fixed price of gold and its fluctuating purchasing power. We show the improvement of the quantity theory and the new issues that emerged from the rich and original American monetary debate, prior to the publication in 1911 of Fisher’s book.

This paper examines the influence of Irving Fisher’s writings on Milton Friedman’s work in monetary economics. We focus first on Fisher’s influences in monetary theory (the quantity theory of money, the Fisher effect, Gibson’s Paradox, the monetary theory of business cycles, and the Phillips Curve), and empirics (e.g., distributed lags.). Then we discuss Fisher and Friedman’s views on monetary policy and various schemes for monetary reform (the k% rule, freezing the monetary base, the compensated dollar, a mandate for price stability, 100% reserve money, and stamped money). Assessing the influence of an earlier economist’s writings on that of later scholars is a challenge. As a science progresses, the views of its earlier pioneers are absorbed in the weltanschauung. Fisher’s The Purchasing Power of Money as well as the work of Pigou and Marshall were the basic building blocks for later students of monetary economics. Thus, the Chicago School of the 1930s absorbed Fisher’s approach, and Friedman learned from them. However, in some salient aspects of Friedman’s work, we can clearly detect a major direct influence of Fisher’s writings on Friedman’s. Thus, for example, with the buildup of inflation in the 1960s, Friedman adopted the Fisher effect and Fisher’s empirical approach to inflationary expectations into his analysis. Therefore, Fisher’s influence on Friedman was both indirect through the Chicago School and direct. Regardless of the weight attached to the two influences, Fisher’s impact on Friedman was profound.

This article reconsiders, in the light of the current financial turmoil, Irving Fisher’s 1911 theory of financial crises and his 1933 debt-deflation theory of Great Depressions. Particular attention is given to the role of high debt ratios, high leverage ratios, and changes in the purchasing power of money in Fisher’s analysis, and to Fisher’s compensated dollar plan to stabilize the purchasing power of money. It is argued that indexing the unit of account would accomplish Fisher’s goal of stabilization without the practical difficulties of Fisher’s compensated dollar plan.

Irving Fisher believed in evidence-based decision making. This paper considers how three aspects of Fisher’s methodology could be useful now in the quest to deal with U.S. financial instability: (1) his institutional approach; (2) his efforts to use index number theory as a means to improve official statistics data; and (3) his interest in automating aspects of data analyses. The paper concludes with a call to action for Fisher’s progeny. Actions to solve US financial instability are surely the most fitting possible tribute to Irving Fisher.

There are four main approaches to bilateral index number theory: the fixed basket, stochastic, test, and economic approaches. The paper reviews the contributions of Irving Fisher to these approaches to index number theory, which are still in use today. The paper also reviews Fisher’s contributions to multilateral index number theory. The main themes of the paper are developed in the context of a review of the early history of index number theory: a history that conveys a wealth of information and insight into the making and use of index numbers today.

The translation titled “The Overrated Reason” is based on the German text “Die Überschätzte Vernunft,” by Friedrich Hayek—a lecture that Hayek gave at a symposium at Castle Kleβheim in early 1982.