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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 January 2011
Theodore Roosevelt made reform of the U.S. Army Officer Corps a priority during his presidency. He felt compelled to act because of the problems that the army experienced during the war with Spain. As a volunteer soldier, Roosevelt had witnessed the shortcomings of many of the top-ranking officers in meeting the physical and organizational demands of the fighting, but he also acted because he wanted high-minded, intelligent, and physically fit leaders who could inspire his fellow citizens to a greater sense of duty in post-frontier America. Roosevelt's efforts to promote promising army officers to top commands and mandate physical fitness standards would prove disruptive, as he elevated officers out of the normal line of promotion. These practices would, in turn, generate protests in Congress and from within the military. The resulting controversies would cause Roosevelt to fall short of his goals for improving army leadership, roil civil-military relations, and demonstrate his limits as a political leader.
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6 Well-known examples include: Dyer, Thomas G., Theodore Roosevelt and the Idea of Race (Baton Rouge, 1980)Google Scholar; Bederman, Gail, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoganson, Kristin L., Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven, CT, 1998)Google Scholar; Watts, Sarah, Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire (Chicago, 2003).Google Scholar
7 Theodore Roosevelt to Henry Cabot Lodge, Apr. 29, 1896, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 1:535–36; also Roosevelt to J. M. Wall June 7, 1897, 1:621; Roosevelt to Robert Bacon, Apr. 5, 1898, 2:811; Roosevelt, Theodore, “The Strenuous Life” (1899), repr. American Ideals in The Works of Theodore Roosevelt, vol. 13 (New York, 1926), 322–23Google Scholar; Roosevelt, Autobiography, 210.
8 Theodore Roosevelt to Frederick Jackson Turner, Feb. 10, 1894, Dec. 15, 1896, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 1: 363, 571.
9 Roosevelt, Theodore, “Washington's Forgotten Maxim” (1897), repr. in Works of Theodore Roosevelt, 3:197–98Google Scholar.
10 Roosevelt, Theodore, “American Ideals” (1895), repr. in Works of Theodore Roosevelt, 13:12.Google Scholar
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17 Theodore Roosevelt to Henry Cabot Lodge, May 25, 1898, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 2:833.
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21 Roosevelt conveniently overlooked Wood's political connections in receiving the Medal of Honor. Wood was married to a ward of a United States Supreme Court justice, and at the time the medal was awarded, he was the personal physician of President William McKinley and the First Lady. “A Doctor as a Major General,” Army and Navy Journal, Mar. 9, 1901, 669; Lane, Jack C., Armed Progressive: General Leonard Wood (San Rafael, CA, 1978), 19, 86, 115–16.Google Scholar
22 Theodore Roosevelt to Augustus Peabody Gardner, Dec. 1, 1897, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 1:723.
23 Roosevelt, Rough Riders, 4; Roosevelt also wrote an article for The Outlook that in the course of promoting expansionism focused on Wood's accomplishments as governor of Santiago. “Leonard Wood, Governor of Santiago,” Outlook, Jan. 7, 1899, repr. in Theodore Roosevelt, Men of Action in The Works of Theodore Roosevelt, 11:248–55.
24 Roosevelt, Rough Riders, 3–4.
25 Roosevelt, Autobiography, 229.
26 “Letter of Theodore Roosevelt to the Progressive National Committee,” Broadside (1916), Theodore Roosevelt Collection, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
27 Roberts, William R., “Reform and Revitalization, 1890–1903” in Against All Enemies: Interpretations of American Military History from Colonial Times to the Present, eds. Hagan, Kenneth J. and Roberts, William R. (Westport, CT, 1986), 203Google Scholar. After hostilities with Spain ceased, the army returned to a peacetime basis, mustering out 34,834 regulars, 110,202 volunteers, and almost all 5,216 volunteer officers. The Philippine Insurrection spurred the growth of the army again. On Mar. 2, 1899, legislation authorized a regular army no larger than 65,000 enlisted and a volunteer force of no more than 35,000 troops. By the close of 1899, the regular army contained 61,999 enlisted and 2,248 officers with the volunteers at a strength of 33,050 enlisted and 1,524 officers. Elihu Root, “Report of the Secretary of War (1899),” (3–4) in Annual Reports of the War Department.
28 Roosevelt, “Washington's Forgotten Maxim,” 189–90.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid., 192; Roosevelt, Theodore, “The Presidency” (1900), repr. in Works of Theodore Roosevelt, 13:311–12Google Scholar.
31 Roosevelt, “Washington's Forgotten Maxim,” 189–90.
32 Theodore Roosevelt to Henry Cabot Lodge, Jan. 2, 1896, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 1:504.
33 Roosevelt, Theodore, Pocket Diary, 1898: Theodore Roosevelt's Private Account of the War with Spain, ed. Dailey, Wallace Finley (Cambridge, MA, 1998), entry for May 21, 1898.Google Scholar
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35 Cooper, John Milton, Pivotal Decades: The United States, 1900–1920 (New York, 1990), 39–49Google Scholar; Gould, Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, 67, 164–71; McDonald, American Presidency, 288–89, 294–95; Morris, Edmund, Theodore Rex (New York, 2001), 460–61.Google Scholar
36 Theodore Roosevelt's annual messages are conveniently found through the American Presidency Project at the University of California—Santa Barbara. The quotation comes from the eighth annual address and echoes ideas voiced initially in his first annual address. Theodore Roosevelt, Eighth Annual Message, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php (accessed Jan. 16, 2009).
37 Ibid.
38 Coffman, Edward M., The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784–1898 (New York, 1986), 49, 230–34.Google Scholar
39 Theodore Roosevelt to John D. Long, Dec. 30, 1897, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 1:750; Theodore Roosevelt to E. L. Godkin, Jan. 5, 1898, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 1:751–52; Spector, Ronald, “The Triumph of Professional Ideology: The U.S. Navy in the 1890s” in In Peace and War: Interpretations of American Naval History, 1775–1984, 2nd ed., ed. Hagan, Kenneth J. (Westport, CT, 1984), 183–84Google Scholar; Paullin, Charles Oscar, Paullin's History of Naval Administration, 1775–1911 (Annapolis, MD, 1968), 457–64Google Scholar.
40 Coffman, The Old Army, 268–29.
41 Matthew Oyos, “Theodore Roosevelt: Commander in Chief,” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 1993), 100–01.
42 Wooster, Robert, Nelson Miles and the Twilight of the Frontier Army (Lincoln, NE, 1993), 238–46.Google Scholar
43 Roosevelt, Theodore to Elihu Root, Feb. 18, Mar. 7, 1902, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 3:232, 240–42Google Scholar; New York Times, Special, June 12, 1902, 1; Allan R. Millett, “Theodore Roosevelt and His Generals, The Politics of Promotion to Brigadier General in the United States Army, 1901–1909,” Inaugural Lecture, Apr. 1974, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 7.
44 Roosevelt, First Annual Message, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php (accessed Jan. 16, 2009).
45 Millett, “Roosevelt and His Generals,” 4–5; Frederick Funston, Memories of Two Wars: Cuban and Philippine Experiences (London, 1911), 426. A letter to Michigan senator Russell Alger, the former secretary of war, in the Leonard Wood papers lists the 93 regular officers whom MacArthur jumped. S.B.M. Young to R.A. Alger, Dec. 29, 1903, folder 4, box 32, Leonard Wood Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington.
46 Memorandum from Henry C. Corbin, 8 July 1903, file 514783, series 25, Office of the Adjutant General, Record Group [RG] 94, National Archives, Washington. A handwritten note in the margin of this document relates the president's plans for upcoming promotions. Also Elihu Root to Theodore Roosevelt, July 16, 1903, file 938273, series 25, RG 94; Theodore Roosevelt to Oswald Garrison Villard, July 17, 1903, folder 14, box 162, Elihu Root Papers, Library of Congress; Theodore Roosevelt to Elihu Root, July 17, 1903, and Roosevelt to Villard, July 25, 1903, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 3:513, 519–20; Generals' endorsements would be forthcoming when Pershing's turn arrived. See, for example, George W. Davis to the Secretary of War, Mar. 10, 1906, file 3849 ACP 1886, microform M-1395, RG 94.
47 Frederick W. Marks III, Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt (Lincoln, 1979), 130–32; A well-known example of Roosevelt's use of the fait accompli in foreign policy and in naval appropriations was his sudden announcement in 1907 of the world cruise of the battleship fleet. Reckner, James R., Teddy Roosevelt's Great White Fleet (Annapolis, 1988), 10–11.Google Scholar
48 Register of Graduates and Former Cadets of the United States Military Academy, ed. Paul W. Child (West Point, 1990), 297; William Crozier to Theodore Roosevelt, Oct. 1899, file 6251, Office of the Secretary of War, RG 107, National Archives; Army and Navy Journal, Nov. 29, 1902, 296; Millett, “Roosevelt and His Generals,” 7.
49 Gatewood, Willard B. Jr., Theodore Roosevelt and the Art of Controversy: Episodes of the White House Years (Baton Rouge, 1970), 26–30.Google Scholar
50 Child, Register, 295, 296, 297, 301, 302; William Crozier to Theodore Roosevelt, Oct. 1899, file 6251, RG 107; Army and Navy Journal, Nov. 29, 1902, 296; Millett, “Roosevelt and His Generals,” 7.
51 Palmer, Frederick, Bliss, Peacemaker: The Life and Letters of General Tasker Howard Bliss (New York, 1934), 77–79Google Scholar; Heitman, Francis B., Historical Register and Dictionary of the U.S. Army, 1789–1903 (1903; Urbana, 1965), 225, 228Google Scholar; S.B.M. Young to R.A. Alger, Dec. 29, 1903, folder 4, box 32, Wood Papers; Leonard Wood to Theodore Roosevelt, Jan. 4, 1902, roll 23, series 1,Theodore Roosevelt Papers (microfilm edition), Manuscript Division, Library of Congress; List of Ages, folder 3, box 281, John J. Pershing Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress; John J. Pershing to Elmer S. Burkett, Nov. 2, 1903, folder 3, box 281, Pershing Papers; Child, Register of Graduates, 296.
52 Memorandum from Henry C. Corbin, July 8, 1903, file 514783, series 25, RG 94. Elihu Root to Theodore Roosevelt, July 16, 1903, file 938273, series 25, RG 94; Theodore Roosevelt to Oswald Garrison Villard, July 17, 1903, folder 14, box 162, Root Papers; Roosevelt to Root, July 17, 1903, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 3:519; Theodore Roosevelt to Oswald Garrison Villard, July 25, 1903, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 3: 513. S.B.M. Young, Dec. 29, 1903, folder 4, box 32, Wood Papers; Millett, “Roosevelt and his Generals,” 8. Barry also would pass over only thirty-six others, which would help win Senate approval.
53 “War Chiefs of the Army,” in The World's Work: A History of Our Time, vol. 30, May 1915–Oct. 1915 (Garden City, 1915), 663, 669.
54 Theodore Roosevelt to Thomas H. Barry, July 20, 1903, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 3:521–22.
55 See Roosevelt, Theodore, The Winning of the West, 4 vols. (repr. New York, 1904).Google Scholar
56 Theodore Roosevelt to Daniel Scott Lamont, July 14, 1903, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 3:517.
57 Miller, Stuart C., Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines (New Haven, 1982), 196–97Google Scholar; Roosevelt, Theodore, State Papers as Governor and President, 1899–1909 in The Works of Theodore Roosevelt (New York, 1925), 17:142–43Google Scholar; Theodore Roosevelt to John J. Pershing, Dec. 12, 1898, folder 13, box 177, Pershing Papers; Colonel J. Kerr, General Staff Memorandum, May 8, 1906, Subject File “General officers,” box 15, series 3, War Department General and Special Staff, RG 165, National Archives. This memorandum notes an imbalance in the appointment of general officers in relation to the branches of the service. Office of the Chief of Staff, 1913, file 10196, series 5, RG 165, provides data on promotions to brigadier general, dating from Apr. 22, 1906. Although it provides statistics for a time after Roosevelt made most of his appointments, it still indicates an ongoing trend in which the cavalry received more than its share of brigadier general promotions.
58 Roosevelt, First Annual Message, American Presidency Project.
59 Linn, “Frontier Army,” 141–50.
60 He probably waited, as well, because of the fallout from the promotion of Leonard Wood to major general in 1904. Wood's promotion generated resistance because of his political connections, especially his friendship with the president, which preceded the Spanish-American War, during which Wood, of course, commanded the Rough Riders. Wood had also benefited from one of McKinley's promotions, moving from captain in the Medical Department to brigadier general. He jumped 530 others but was, at the time, a major general in the volunteer forces. His promotion during Roosevelt's presidency was not unusual, for he was now moving up in his turn. A strike against Wood, however, meant a strike against the president, and that made Wood a tempting target. See, S.B.M. Young to R.A. Alger, Dec. 29, 1903, folder 4, box 32, Wood Papers; Grenville Dodge to Leonard Wood, Nov. 9, 1903, folder 3, box 32, Wood Papers; U.S. Senate Committee on Military Affairs, Hearings on the Nomination of Leonard Wood to Be Major General, 58th Cong., 2nd sess. (Jan. 7, 1904), exec doc. C, 18–21.
61 Theodore Roosevelt to A. D. Andrews, Nov. 17, 1903, in Letters to Avery D. Andrews, MS Am 1454.45, Theodore Roosevelt Collection, Harvard University.
62 James H. Canfield to Frank L. Stetson, Jan. 25, 1895, file 3849 ACP 1886, microform M-1395, RG 94; news clippings, “Pershing's Big Jump” and “He Deserved Promotion,” Syracuse Herald, Sept. 17, 1906, folder 4, box 281, Pershing Papers.
63 An account of Pershing's exploits around Lake Lanao is contained in Smythe, Donald, Guerrilla Warrior: The Early Life of John J. Pershing (New York, 1973), 94–110Google Scholar; Roosevelt, State Papers, 233; Newspaper Clipping, Chicago Tribune, Mar. 10, 1903, in folder 2, box 281, Pershing Papers.
64 Trask, David, The War With Spain in 1898 (New York, 1981), 243.Google Scholar
65 Avery Andrews to Charles Nagel, Oct. 23, 1903; Andrews to Theodore Roosevelt, Nov. 16, 1903; Roosevelt to Andrews, Nov. 17, 1903; James Canfield to John J. Pershing, Dec. 9, 1903; Recommendations for Brigadier General; Pershing to Elmer J. Burkett, Nov. 21, 1903, all in folder 3, box 281, Pershing Papers; Elmer J. Burkett to Theodore Roosevelt, Dec. 1, 1903, file 3849 ACP 1886, microform M-1395, RG 94; Smythe, Guerrilla Warrior, 52–59, 118. Pershing readily seized opportunities to put his name forward. In 1903, for example, Pershing wrote General Wood: “If the administration adheres to this principle [merit promotions] I intend when the proper time comes to invite attention to my own work and with that end in view I shall be glad to have you, at an early date, write me a letter of recommendation.” Pershing to Wood, Sept. 8, 1903, folder 4, box 32, Wood Papers.
66 Theodore Roosevelt to Francis Warren, Nov. 19, 1910, folder 13, box 177, Pershing Papers.
67 George G. Dorsett to Frederick Ainsworth, Nov. 30, 1907, file 1309504, series 25, RG 94; Letcher Hardeman to John J. Pershing, Sept. 17, 1906, folder 4, box 281, Pershing Papers.
68 Washington Post, July 2, 1907.
69 Washington Post, Mar. 17, 1907.
70 Millett, “Roosevelt and His Generals,” 11–12. Thirty-one officers moved ahead of their turn, and many served a few years as generals—and some even more—before retiring.
71 For example, Senator Joseph Hawley, chairman of the Senate Military Affairs Committee, served with distinction during the Civil War, rising to the rank of brevet major general. See “The Republican Convention,” Harper's Weekly, June 6, 1868, 362.
72 Theodore Roosevelt to Alfred Henry Lewis, Feb. 17, 1906, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 5:156–57; Morris, Theodore Rex, 439–40.
73 Theodore Roosevelt to Leonard Wood, June 4, 1904, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 4:820.
74 Army and Navy Journal, Apr. 23, 1904, 894–95, Apr. 30, 1904, 911, June 18, 1904, 1105.
75 Millett, “Roosevelt and His Generals,” 8–9. As a former volunteer general, even Senate Military Affairs Committee chair Hawley was included in the law.
76 Beckett, Ian F. W., The Great War, 1914–1918 (New York, 2001), 55–56, 59.Google Scholar
77 Koistinen, Mobilizing for Modern War, 153.
78 Coffman, Edward M., The Regulars: The American Army, 1898–1941 (Cambridge, MA, 2004), 203.Google Scholar
79 Coffman, The Regulars, 208. Pershing recommended the relief of seventeen officers.
80 Roosevelt, Autobiography, 51.
81 Theodore Roosevelt to Henry Cabot Lodge, June 27, July 3, 7, 1898, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 2: 845–46, 850.
82 Roosevelt, Autobiography, 48.
83 Army and Navy Journal, Dec. 7, 1907, 351, 355, Aug. 14, 1909, 1415, Dec. 24, 1910, 470, 490, June 19, 1915, 1337; William S. Sims, Notes on “An Endurance Test for Admirals,” folder 6, box 96, William S. Sims Papers, Library of Congress; Williams S. Sims to Theodore Roosevelt, Nov. 16, 1908, and Sims, Memorandum to Roosevelt, Nov. 27, 1908, folder 7, box 97, Sims Papers.
84 Archie Butt to Clara Butt, Jan. 8, 12, 14, 1909, in Butt, Archie, Letters of Archie Butt: Personal Aide to President Roosevelt, ed. Abbot, Lawrence F. (New York, 1925), 280, 283–95 (quotation 286).Google Scholar
85 Army and Navy Journal, June 26, 1909, 1223, June 27, 1914, 1367.
86 In 1917 alone, the War Department had requested 687,000 men. The army would reach a total strength of over 3.7 million. Coffman, Edward M., The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (Madison, WI, 1986), 28, 357Google Scholar.
87 Ibid., 17, 182. This period ran from May to October 1918.
88 Ibid., 34- 42, 357; Cuff, Robert D., The War Industries Board: Business-Government Relations during World War I (Baltimore, 1973), 2, 92, 115–16, 179–80Google Scholar.
89 Coffman, The Regulars, 208.
90 Roosevelt's undermining of his own legislative priorities was not isolated to this one case, as noted by Dalton, “Finding Theodore Roosevelt.”
91 Koistinen, Mobilizing for Modern War, 153.
92 Leonard Wood to B.K. Roberts, Sept. 8, 1903, folder 4, box 32, Wood Papers; Millett, “Roosevelt and His Generals,” 7; Army and Navy Journal, Apr. 23, 1904, 894–95, Apr. 30, 1904, 911, June 18, 1904, 1105. The Army Register is published annually and provides data on promotions and retirements. For a concise list of the promotions during Roosevelt's presidency, Lists of Promotion of line and staff officers to general officers, Apr. 13, 1909, file 10343, series 5, RG 165.
93 New York Times, Aug. 26, 1915.
94 Theodore Roosevelt to Archibald Roosevelt, Sept. 8, 1917, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 8:1236.
95 Theodore Roosevelt to Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., Aug. 9, 1917, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 8:1222.
96 Theodore Roosevelt to Mary L. Brown, July 26, 1918, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 8:1355. Just a few days earlier, Roosevelt's mood had been much different after he heard of Quentin's first air victory. He wrote at that time that “whatever now befalls Quentin he has now had his crowded hour, and his day of honor and triumph.” Roosevelt to Ethel Roosevelt Derby, July 12, 1918, in Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 8:1351.
97 Washington Post, Aug. 25, 1911; Sean Malloy, L., Atomic Tragedy: Henry L. Stimson and the Decision to Use the Bomb against Japan (Ithaca, NY, 2008), 18–26, 118–19.Google Scholar