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Guerrilla Warfare and the Filipino Resistance on Negros Island in the Bisayas, 1942–1945

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 August 2009

Donn V. Hart
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The most recent history of the Philippines makes no reference to guerrilla activities or the resistance movement in Negros, although brief comments are included about the rest of the Bisayas. Yet Negrenses, both indigenous and “adopted,” have been unusually active in recording the history of their island during the war years. Recently two additional books were added to the expanding literature on wartime Negros. Since 1946 seven books have been published (one is a mimeographed monograph) on this broad topic for Negros. Unfortunately, many of these sources have not been utilized in more general accounts of occupied Philippines. Probably there is more material on this historic period for Negros than the rest of the Bisayas, with the exception of Leyte.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Southeast Asian History , Volume 5 , Issue 1 , March 1964 , pp. 101 - 125
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore 1964

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References

1. Agoncillo, Teodoro A. and Alfonso, Oscar M.. A Short History of the Filipino People, [Diliman], University of the Philippines, 1961, iv, 629 pp.Google Scholar

2. One known book manuscript exists on the guerrilla history of Negros Oriental. “Soldiers Without Shoes” (27 chapters) was written by Miss Abby R. Jocabs, an English Teacher at Silliman University from 1931 to 1953. Miss Jacobs, the sister of Metta Silliman, the wife of Robert Silliman, lived with her sister and brother-in-law in the upper Siaton River Valley after the occupation of Negros by the Japanese. She escaped by submarine ta Australia in 1944, along with the Sillimans, Bells, and others. The present address of Miss Jacobs is: 16 Jane Street, New York 14, New York.

3. Mr. Robert B. Silliman, Executive Vice-President of Silliman University, is one American who could write authoritatively on Oriental Negros during this period. He was the first American to meet Jesus Villamor when he returned to Negros in 1943. In June of this year, Mr. Silliman became Deputy Governor for the Sixth District of Negros, an area stretching from Tolong in the south to Tanjay on the eastern coast. In response to a personal letter, he wrote: “Since none of our records was lost, I now have irt my possession copies of all my official reports to Governor Montelibano [of the Free Negros Government] and all of his official proclamations, memoranda, and the like. I also have complete reports from all the mayors and other civil officials of each town in my district — together with secret and confidential reports of various military commanders made to Governor Montelibano, or to myself, if they were local commanders.” In addition, Mr. Sillimart has a copy of Miss Jacobs' “Soldiers Without Shoes,” her “Leaves from, a War Diary” (82 typescript pages), and the original typewritten manuscript of “They Called Us Outlaws” written by Edilberto K. Tiempo (See footnote No. 10). Silliman University Library also has a complete set of The Sillimanian, edited by Miss Jacobs. These daily news-sheets were printed by the University from the outbreak of the war to the Japanese arrival at Dumaguete. According to the Chapmans, this paper was “for some time the only news-sheet in all southern Negros [and] … gave authentic war news to the people.” (Are all copies of The Voice of Freedom, a mimeographed paper edited by Soledad Locsin for the Free Negors Government, lost?)

Silliman University has two bound volumes of the original manuscript of the forthcoming history of Silliman University, written by Dr. Arthur Carson, a former president of the university. A condensed version of this manuscript will be published in 1964. According to Mr. Silliman, One of his [Dr. Carson's] longest chapters deals with the part played by the University as a whole and of individual faculty members during the war.” Another manuscript in Mr. Silliman's possession is “The First Guerrilla Organization in the Siaton Area” by Lt. Joaquirt Funda, presently mayor of Ipil, Zamboanga del Sur, Mindanao. His wife, Nui, was one of the Thai students trapped at Silliman University by the war, and later escaped to the hills with the Sillimans. Mr. Silliman's permanent address in the1 United States is: United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia, 475 Riverside Drive, New York 27, New York.

A helpful guide to occupation materials is The Philippines During the Japanese Regime, 1942–1945: An Annotated List of the Literature Published in or About the Philippine sDuring the Japanese Occupation? prepared by the Office of he Chief of Counter-intelligence, Philippine Research and Information Section, GHQ, AFPAC, APO 500, October 10, 1945, ii, 44 pp., mimeo. This guide indicates that the New Negros Weekly was published in Bacolod by the Occidental Negros chapter of the Kalibapi from July 17, 1943, to March 15, 1945. No reference is made to The Voice of Freedom. Liberator was a mimeographed newspaper issued by the Seventh Military District, Negros, in 1943, containing local and general news. Similar newspapers were published in Cebu, Panay, and Bohol. Agoncillo and Alfonso list some of the guerrilla papers issued in Panay and Leyte (p. 479).

Four official American sources on this period are under the custody of the World War II Records Division, National Archives and Records Service, Alexandria, Virginia. According to Sherrod East, Director, World War II Records, “Generally speaking, all of the pertinent and extant operations reports, reports after action, with their supporting documents, and most histories are) in the National Archives and are available for scholarly research.” Some source documents are still in the custody of the Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, Washington 25, D.C. Besides broad reports on the Philippines (such as General MacArthur's Historical Report, the four volumes on “Triumph in the Philippines,” prepared by the Combat History Division, and a study of the puppet government of the Philippines), this office has specific studies on the Bisayas. There are “operational monographs” on the Leyte Samar operation (December 26, 1944, to May 8, 1945), the Panay-Negros and Cebu operations (March 18 to June 20, 1945), the Panay-Negros Occidental operation (March, 18 to June 20, (1945) and the Cebu-Bohol-Negros Oriental Operation (March 26 to June 24, 1945). Headquarters, Department of the Army, Office of the Adjutant General, U.S. Army Records Center, St. Louis 32, Missouri, has: “Triumph in the Philippines, 1941–1946, Volume III, Enemy Occupation: Japanese-Chapter VI: Guerrilla Activities in the Visayas” (17 pages); “The History of the Negros Force, Chapter IV: Negros Prepared for Guerrilla Warfare” (20 pages); and “The History of Guerrilla Resistance Movements on Leyte, Samar, Cebu, Fanny and Neighboring Islands, Negros and Bohol” (52 pages). According to Colonel Eugene S. Tarr, there are “no war diaries and memoirs, as such, of liberated American Prisoners of War relating to Guerrilla activities and the resistance movement on Negros or the Visayas, on file, in this Center.”

5. For Panay, the island of Tomas Confessor, there are two books on the occupation period: Louise Reid Spencer, Guerrillas Wife, Chicago, Illinois, Peoples Book Club, Inc., 1945, 243 ppGoogle Scholar,. originally published by Thomas Y. Crowell, New York; and Jose Demandante Doromal, The War in Panay: A Documentary History of the Resistance Movement in Panay During World War II, Manila, The Diamond Historical Publications, 1952, xiv, 313ppGoogle Scholar. Also see Romulo D. Plagata, “The Panay Resistance Movement,” Buletin ng Kapisanang Pangkasaysayan ng Pilipinas (Bulletin of the Philippine Historical Association), No. 5, 09, 1958, 57–95Google Scholar. This account utilized Philippine army records, and includes lists of the officials of Confessor's free government and guerrilla units under Lt. Col. Peralta. Neither of these three sources contains much information on Negros. To the reviewer's knowledge there are no specific accounts published about resistance in Cebu or Bohol. For the famous inversion of Leyte, numerous sources exist. Besides those cited in this article, see Joseph F. St. John, as told to Howard Handleman, Leyte Calling, New York The Vanguard Press, 1945, 220 pp.; Ira Wolfert, American Guerrilla in the Philippines, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1945, x, 301 pp.Google Scholar; and Jan Valtin (pseudonym of Richard J. Herman Krebs), Children of Yesterday;, New York, Reader's Press, 1946. 429 ppGoogle Scholar. Two new sources on Mindanao have been published recently: Brig. Gen. McGee, John H., Rice and Salt: A History of the Defense and Occupation of Mindanao During World War IIGoogle Scholar, San Antonio, [Texas], Naylor Co., 1962, xviii 242 pp., 15 maps and sketches; and Wendell W. Ferlig and John Keats, They Fought Alone: Fertig and the Mindanao Guerrillas, Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott, Co., 1963Google Scholar. Another account of occupied Mindanao is Edward Haggerty, Guerrilla Padre in Mindanao, New York, Longsmans, Green, and Co., 1946, xii, 257 ppGoogle Scholar. Unavailable for examination in preparing this review was: The Guerrilla Resistance Movement in the Philippines, Vol. 1, General Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces, Pacific, 1946. One copy of this mimeographed volume is on file at The Office of the Chief of Military History and another at World War II Records Division, Alexandria.

6. Lear, Elmer, The Japanese Occupation of the Philippines, Leyte, 1941–1945 Ithaca, New York, Data Paper No. 42, Southeast Asia Program Department of Far Eastern Studies, Cornell Universities, June, 1961, xvi, 246 pp., mimeo. Reference is mada to the bibliography in this publication (pp. 242–46).

7. It was not possible to make a complete survey of all these and dissertations accepted by Philippine colleges and universities to determine the extent of studies on guerrilla warfare and the resistance movement. However, the following list probably includes most of those accepted on this subject and is based on the bibliographies published in the Philippine Journal of Public Administration: Domingo Santiago, “History of Philippine Education During the Japanese Occupation,” 1951, University of the Philippines; Abrencia, Pedro B., “The Leyte Area Command: Its Organization and Role in the Resistance Movement in the Philippines,”Google Scholar M. A. thesis in Education, Adamson University, 1950; Banda, Juliana Flores, “Philippine Education During the Japanese Occupation,”Google Scholar M. A. in Education, Union College of Manila, 1949; Estrada, Williamf, “A Historical Study of the Guerrilla Movement in Pangasinan, 1942–45,”Google Scholar M. A. in History, Far Eastern University, 1951; Florentino, Alberto B., “A Study of the Educational System in the Philippines under the Japanese Regime,”Google Scholar M. A. in Education, Adamson University, 1951; Mojica, Proculo, “The Guerrilla Movement in Rizal Province.”Google Scholar M. A. in Political Science, Far Eastern Unitversity, 1953; and Layague, Aquilerio L., “The History and Evaluation of the Schools of Free Negros Oriental During the Japanese Rule,”Google Scholar M. A. in Education, Silliman University, 1948.

8. The limited time available for bibliographical research made it impossible to accomplish a definitive search of possible materials on this topic for Negros — and the Bisayas. Many books about World War II in the Philippines may include a short section on the Bisayas. The only way these brief accounts will be discovered is to scan all such books. Unfortunately, many of these accounts were published privately in the United States and the Philippines and did not circulate widely. For example, for an account of several Americans who were in Panay, Cebu, and Leyte shortly before the Japanese, see Lee, Clark, They Call It Pacific: An Eye-Witness Story of Our War Against Japan from Bataan to the Solomons, New York, Viking Press, 1943, pp. 253–66Google Scholar. Wolfert, Ira's American Guerrilla in the PhilippinesGoogle Scholar includes a short section on the destruction of Cebu City prior to the arrival of the Japanese. Similar accounts are noted elsewhere in this article. Newspapers were not examined but a search for materials on the Bisayas during the war in the Index to Philippine Periodicals (1956–1961)Google Scholar was made without profit.

9. Baclagon erroneously cites this book as written by “Salvador Zaragosa” in his: Philippine Campaigns, Manila, Graphic House, 1952, p. 280.Google Scholar

10. Future historians should not overlook the novel when studying this aspect of Philippine history. Edilberto K. Tiempo's Watch in the Night, Manila, Archipelago Publishing House, 1953, 212 pp. (reprinted in the United States as Cry Slaughter!, New York, Avon Publications, Inc., 1957, 160 pp.) is a fictionalization of the Lusok incident. The author writes that the novel is based on “They Called Us Outlaws, a non-fiction; work which I Wrote for the Seventh Military District, [of Negros] of the Philippine resistance forces, as part of my work as officer in charge of the historical section.” Stevan Javellana's Without Seeing the Dawn, Boston, Massachusetts, Little, Brown, and Company, 1947, 359 pp., (reprinted as The Lost Ones, New York, Popular Library, 1952, 224 pp.) has Panay as its setting, before, during, and after the war. A third novel on the war years in the Bisayas in Shohei Ooka's Fires' on the Plain, translated from the Japanese by Ivan Morris, London, Transworld Publishers, Ltd., a Corgi Book, 1959, 191 pp. This novel of Leyte during the war was written by a former member of the Japanese occupation forces of the island. A novel on the resistance movement, with a Luzon setting, is J. C. Laya's This Barangay, Manila, Inang Wika Publishing Company, 1950, 316 pp. Another novel “of love and heroism during World War II” is J. V. Aguilar, The Great Faith, Jaro, Iloilo City, [Panay], Diolosa Publishing House, c. 1948, ix, 453 pp. The novel's setting probably is the Bisayas. Also see Cabanos-Lava, Josefa, “The Guerrilla Novels,” The Diliman Review, Vol. 3 (07, 1955) 255–97.Google Scholar

11. One advantage of several descriptions of the same event is it permits a more accurate reconstruction. Uriarte gives the names of four Filipinos in this delegation from Cebu. Zaragoza and Bell confirm there were four men but do not give their names. Bryant writes: “The Japanese were negotiating for the surrender of our island, and they sent four Filipinos from Cebu, one of them a son [José] of [the late President] Osmeña.” The author continues, incorrectly: “They were killed by Filipino soldiers in Occidental Negros, the western of the two provinces on the island.” (italics added, op. cit., 61–62). However, Baclagon writes several times that only three persons composed this group, giving the same names as Uriarte but omitting Miguel Veloso. Baclagon was nearby when the shooting occurred. “Upon hearing the automatic rifle fire, Lt. Baclagon, Sub-Sector Executive Officer, rushed to the room and immediately placed Corporal Lusok under arrest,” Baclagon, , They Chose to Fight, p. 8.Google Scholar

12. Uriarte, , op. cit., p. 12Google Scholar. General Wainwright comments unfeelingly on the Lusok incident, also indicating only three individuals were in the delegation. “These extensions [by the Japanese for the surrender of Col. Hilsman's forces in Negros] were all the more remarkable because three Filipino envoys — a Colonel Valariana [actually Col. Benito Valeriano] and his two aides — were murdered by a demented Filipino soldier as they advanced under a flag of truce.” Jonathan M. Wainwright, edited by Considine, Robert, General Wam-wright's Story: The Account of Four Years of Humiliating Defeat, Surrender, and Captivity, New York, Doubleday and Company, 1946, p. 148Google Scholar. Uriarte states Lusok was sent to Cebu on orders of “Col. Hilsman [Col. Roger B. Hilsman]” whereas Baclagon reports the “order came down from Col. Maclenan [Col. Carter R. McLennan]”. Baclagon spells Col. McLennan's name correctly in his Philippine Campaigns.

13. Morton, Louis, The Fall of the Philippines, United States Army in World War II. The War in the Pacific, Washington, D. C., 1953, p. 507. This account of the pre-invasion conditions in Negros (and the Bisayas) and the Japanese occupation of the island is brief but based upon official military reports and interviews or specially prepared reports the author obtained from Americans who participated in the events, e.g., Cols. Hilsman and McLennan.

14. Morton, , op. cit., pp. 574–82Google Scholar. For additional information, see McGee and Fertig and Keats, footnote no. 5.

15. Morton, ibid., p. 582.

16. Wainwright, , op. cit., p. 148Google Scholar. In December, 1941, the Philippine Constabulary had confined all the Japanese nationals in the Bacolod North Elementary School. They were later released by their own troops. A Japanese carpenter, a former employee of an Occidental Negros hacienda, became the commandant of the new prison camp. He assigned to his former employer the task of mopping his room each morning, Vaughan, op. cit., pp. 75–77. More than 30 Japanese aliens were interned in Oriental Negros. Bell comments that, “Several of the Japanese had been prominent merchants, apparently very successful in the province for a number of years. They were courteous and intelligent, and on the surface, the public had very little reason for possible suspicion. Upon search, however, evidence wad found that a number of these people were reserve officers in the Japanese! Army and their mercantile business was subsidized by the Japanese Government”, (p. 2).

17. Morton, , op. cit., p. 582.Google Scholar

18. Morton, op. cit., p. 583.Google Scholar

19. Wainwright, , op. cit., p. 153.Google Scholar

20. Ney, Virgil, Notes on Guerrilla War: Principles and Practices, Washington, D. C. Command Publications, 1961, p. 105. The source of this quotation is The Guerrilla Resistance Movement in the Philippines, General Headquarters, United States Army Forces, Pacific, Vol. 1, 1948, p. 34. Colonel Ney's book also includes brief comments on resistance activities elsewhere in the Bisayas, pp. 100–08.

21. American military forces referred to the guerrillas as USFIP (United States Forces in the Philippines), the name, given the USAFFE forces after the surrender of Bataan, see Boggs, Charles W. Jr., Marine Aviation in the PhilippinesGoogle Scholar, Historical Division Headquarters, U. S. Marines, Washington 25. D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office, 1951, p. 98. For additional information on Villamor's mission to Negros, also see Doromal, , op. cit., pp. 72–73Google Scholar. Villamor has remained silent about his part in the resistance movement in Negros.

22. Marine pilots strafed Japanese fields at Bacolod. Tailsay, Fabrica, etc., sunk a barge used to supply, Japanese troops, and destroyed a 15-car “freight” (one of the small trains used to carry cut sugar cane from the fields to the centrales). “As the Corsair men flew oven Negros or Cebu on their return trips from Panay and Samar, guerrillas usually radioed suggested targets to be bombed; or strafed,” Boggs, Jr., op. cit., p. 118Google Scholar. Also see Taylor, Joe G., “Air Support of Guerillas in Cebu, “Military Affairs, V. 23 (Fall, 1959) 149–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The author relates how one American pilot was shot down while on a mission over Cebu, and parachuted “into the arras of a captain of the ever-present [Filipino] Volunteer Guards, who fed him boiled eggs, chicken and Tuba [a fermented drink] within five minutes, [and] then escorted him to … the air support team,” ibid., p. 151. Also see Woodward, Comer Vann, The Battle for Leyte Gulf, New York, MacMillan, 1947, p, 1Google Scholar. Another detailed account is Field, James A. Jr., The Japanese at Leyte Gulf: The Shö Operation, [Princeton New Jersey], Princeton University Press, iv, 1947, 162 pp.Google Scholar Lt. Gen. Sasaku Suzuki, who had been in command of tho defense of Leyte, was killed off the coast of Negros on April 16, 1945; when American aircraft bombed his ship, Morison, Samuel E., Leyte, June 1944–January 1945Google Scholar, History of the United States Naval Operation in World War II, Boston, Massachusetts, Little, Brown, and Company, 1958, p. 395. This source also includes a map that locates Japanese airfields in Negros, Cebu, Panay, and Bohol.

Four midget submarines were berthed at Cebu, for attack) on the expected invaders. “The enemy [American] invasion of thd Philippines was developing, and as traffic was increasing between Mindanao and the Sulu Sea the area selected for the attack was in the narrowest part, between the southern tip of Negros Island and the northern tip of Mindanao Island,” Mochitsura Hashimoto, Sunk: The Story of the Japanese Submarine Fleet, 1942–1945, translated by Commander E. H. M. Colegrave, London, Cassell and Company, 1954, pp. 25–26.

23. In They Chose to Fight, the date of this landing is erroneously given as April 20, at Look, Sibulan (p. 116), although in the author's Philippine Campaigns the invasion is stated to have occurred April 26, at Lood (p. 375). A detailed account of this invasion of Oriental Negros will be found in CaptainCronin, Francis D., Under the Southern Cross: The Saga of the American Division, Washington, D. C., Combat Forces Press, 1951, xiii, 432 pp.Google Scholar This book includes two photographs of the fighting in Oriental Negros, and also accounts of the Americal's participation in the liberation of Leyte, Cebu, Samar, and Bohol.

24. Morison, Samuel Eliot, The Liberation of the Philippines: Luzon, Mindanao, the Visayas, 1944–1945, History of the United States Naval Operations in World War II, Boston, Massachusetts, Little, Brown, and Company, 1959, pp. 231–38. Also see Gen. Krueger, Walter, From, Down Under to Nippon: The Story of the Sixth Army in World War IIGoogle Scholar, Washington, D.C., Combat Forces Press, xv, 393 pp. General Robert L. Eichelberger, a participant in the Occidental Negros campaign, gives an account of this invasion in Our Jungle Road to Tokyo, in collaboration with Milton Mackaye, New York, The Viking Press, 1959, pp. 208–11Google Scholar. One military historian, however, warns that this book has “many minor inaccuracies concerning both operations and planning” and is “By no means scholarly …,” Smith, Robert Ross, The Approach to the Philippines: The War in the PhilippinesGoogle Scholar, United States Army in World War II, Office of the Chief of Military History, Washington, D. C., 1953, pp. 591–92.

25. Cronin, , op. cit., p. 334Google Scholar. Cronin also estimated the strength of the Japanese in the Oriental Negros area just before the invasion as about 800.

26. In Philippine Campaigns the bibliographical entries are incomplete, the author giving only author (and sometimes only the last name) and title. General Wainwright's book, is entered as written by Robert Considine and, the title is incorrectly given as Wainwright's Own Story.

27. In, many ways, Uriarto is a more accurate account than Baclagon's They Chose to Fight. For example, Uriarte lists correctly the submarine landings at Negros during the Japanese occupation, giving the dates and personnel. Major Villamor returned to Negros from Australia January) 14, 1943, with five other Filipinos. See Roscow, Theodore, United States Submarine Operations in World War II, Annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute, 1949, p. 510Google Scholar. Baclagon incorrectly gives the date of Villamor's landing as January 21, 1943, p. 33 and fails to list, as does Uriarte,. the number and names of the Filipinos accompanying him (p. 74).

28. Klestadt, Albert, The Sea Was Kind, London, Constable, 1959, p. 48Google Scholar. This is an account by a German refugee from Nazi Germany (caught in Manila at the start of the war) who later escaped alone in a small boat to Australia. During his flight south he spent four months on Panay, mainly in Iloilo, escaping (May 24) to Guimaras and then to Mindanao, shortly after the Japanese occupation of Iloilo, ibid., pp. 31–38.

29. In Siaton, Oriental Negro, conflict occured between rival guerrilla units: “… some more powerful guerrilla units tried to assimilate and disarm us. There was a time when another unit came to our territory to disarm us. When they arrived, we could not be foundi for we had dispersed.” Some1 Saiton residents complained that local guerrillas “often were worse than the Japanese, requisitioning food, destroying property, and bullying many of the inhabitants ‘for the good of the war effort,’ more often for their own personal gain.” Donm V. Hart, “Halfway to Uncertainty: A Short Autobiography of a Cebuan Filipino,” University of Manila Journal of East Asiatic Studies, V. 3 (July, 1956) 277.

30. Quezon, Luis, Manuel, The Good Fight, New York, D. Appleton-Century Company 1946, p. 288Google Scholar. Zamboanguita beach is not, as Quezon wrote, “at the extreme southern end of the Island of Negros.” See map.)

31. “Mr. Bell's spirit, originality, and organizing ability were the guiding strengthin the development of the guerrilla organization in this area … He commanded the respect, of soldiers and civilians alike; his worlq was widely knownand appreciated,” Baclagon, , op. cit., p. 130Google Scholar. Mr. Robert Silliman and his wife. Metta, Abby Jacobs, and other later moved to the upper Siaton River Valley. They are remembered with gratitude by Filipinos residing in this area, e.g., see Hart, op. cit. p. 276.Google Scholar

32. Uriarte, , op, cit., p. 229.Google Scholar

33. Lear, , op. cit., p. 241.Google Scholar

34. Saint, Kenworthy. Aubrey, The Tiger of Malaya. The Story of Genera Tomoyuki Yamashita and “Death March” General Masaharu Homma, New York, Exposition Press, 1953, pp. 20–21.Google Scholar

35. Valeriano, Napoleon D. and Bohannan, Charles T. R., Counter Guerrilla Operations. The Philippine Experience, New York, Frederick A. Praeger, 1962, p. viGoogle Scholar.i This book is devoted largely to the Philippine Hukbalahap movement.

36. EliotMorison, Samuel Morison, Samuel, The Rising Sun in the PacificGoogle Scholar. History of the United States Naval Operations in World War II, Boston, Massachusetts, Little, Brown, and Company, 1948, p. 206.

37. Quezon, , op. cit., p. 305.Google Scholar

38. Layague, , op. cit., pp. 23, 27.Google Scholar