Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T11:51:24.392Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Factors associated with tobacco cessation attempts among inpatients in a psychiatric hospital

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 February 2020

Janet K. Otachi Open the ORCID record for Janet K. Otachi [Opens in a new window] ,
Sarret Seng  and
Chizimuzo T. C. Okoli
Janet K. Otachi*
Affiliation:
University of Kentucky College of Nursing, LexingtonKY40536, USA
Sarret Seng
Affiliation:
University of Kentucky College of Nursing, LexingtonKY40536, USA
Chizimuzo T. C. Okoli
Affiliation:
University of Kentucky College of Nursing, LexingtonKY40536, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Janet K. Otachi, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Introduction

Several effective evidence-based tobacco treatment approaches can optimize cessation attempts; however, little is known about the utilization of such strategies by people with mental illnesses (MI) during their cessation attempts.

Aims

To examine methods used during and factors associated with tobacco cessation attempts among people with MI.

Methods

Self-administered cross-sectional survey data were obtained from 132 tobacco using inpatients from a psychiatric facility in Kentucky, USA.

Results

Our study found ‘cold turkey’ as the most reported method by inpatient tobacco users with MI in their prior cessation attempts regardless of the psychiatric diagnosis category. Multivariate logistic regression found ethnicity (OR 26.1; 95% CI 2.9–237.1), age at 1st smoke (OR 1.1; 95% CI 1.0–1.1), importance to quit (OR 1.2; 95% CI 1.0–1.4), and receipt of brief tobacco treatment interventions (OR 1.1; 95% CI 1.0–1.3) significantly associated with quit attempt in the past year.

Conclusion

Despite the existence of various evidence-based approaches to enhance tobacco cessation among people with MI, ‘cold-turkey’ was the most preferred method in this sample. In addition, this study highlighted ethnicity, importance to quit, age at 1st smoke, and receipt of brief interventions as important factors to consider when tailoring tobacco cessation in this population. Though ethnicity is a non-modifiable factor, an informed provider may intervene skillfully by addressing socio-cultural barriers specific to an ethnic group. Lower ratings on the motivation ruler and early age of smoking initiation could also inform providers when using motivational interviewing and other evidence-based tobacco-cessation approaches.

Keywords

Cessation methodsmental illnessquit attemptstobacco cessation
Type
Review Article
Information
Journal of Smoking Cessation , Volume 15 , Issue 2 , June 2020 , pp. 84 - 93
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Annamalai, A., Singh, N., & O'Malley, S. S. (2015). Smoking use and cessation among people with serious mental illness. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 88(3), 271–277.Google ScholarPubMed
Anthenelli, R. M., Benowitz, N. L., West, R., St Aubin, L., McRae, T., Lawrence, D., … Evins, A. E. (2016). Neuropsychiatric safety and efficacy of varenicline, bupropion, and nicotine patch in smokers with and without psychiatric disorders (EAGLES): A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Lancet, 387(10037), 2507–2520. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)30272-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babb, S., Malarcher, A., Schauer, G., Asman, K., & Jamal, A. (2017). Quitting smoking among adults – United States, 2000–2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65, 1457–1464. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6552a1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandiera, F. C., Anteneh, B., Le, T., Delucchi, K., & Guydish, J. (2015). Tobacco-related mortality among persons with mental health and substance abuse problems. PLoS One, 10(3), e0120581. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banham, L., & Gilbody, S. (2010). Smoking cessation in severe mental illness: What works? Addiction, 105(7), 1176–1189. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02946.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benowitz, N. L. (2010). Nicotine addiction. New England Journal of Medicine, 362(24), 2295–2303. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0809890.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berg, C. J., An, L. C., Kirch, M., Guo, H., Thomas, J. L., Patten, C. A., … West, R. (2010). Failure to report attempts to quit smoking. Addictive Behaviors, 35(10), 900–904. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berg, C. J., Schauer, G. L., Buchanan, T. S., Sterling, K., DeSisto, C., Pinsker, E. A., … Ahluwalia, J. S. (2013). Perceptions of addiction, attempts to quit, and successful quitting in nondaily and daily smokers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, 27(4), 1059–1067. doi:10.1037/a0033790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bold, K. W., Rasheed, A. S., McCarthy, D. E., Jackson, T. C., Fiore, M. C., & Baker, T. B. (2015). Rates and predictors of renewed quitting after relapse during a one-year follow-up among primary care patients. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49(1), 128–140. doi:10.1007/s12160-014-9627-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borland, R., Partos, T. R., Yong, H.-H., Cummings, K. M., & Hyland, A. (2012). How much unsuccessful quitting activity is going on among adult smokers? Data from the international tobacco control four country cohort survey. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 107(3), 673–682. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03685.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borrelli, B., Bartlett, Y. K., Tooley, E., Armitage, C. J., & Wearden, A. (2015). Prevalence and frequency of mHealth and eHealth use among US and UK smokers and differences by motivation to quit. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17(7), e164. doi:10.2196/jmir.4420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boudreaux, E. D., Sullivan, A., Abar, B., Bernstein, S. L., Ginde, A. A., & Camargo, C. A. Jr. (2012). Motivation rulers for smoking cessation: A prospective observational examination of construct and predictive validity. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice, 7(1), 8–8. doi:10.1186/1940-0640-7-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breslau, N., Fenn, N., & Peterson, E. L. (1993). Early smoking initiation and nicotine dependence in a cohort of young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 33(2), 129–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunette, M. F., Ferron, J. C., Aschbrenner, K. A., Pratt, S. I., Geiger, P., & Kosydar, S. (2019). Attitudes about smoking cessation treatment, intention to quit, and cessation treatment utilization among young adult smokers with severe mental illnesses. Addictive Behaviors, 89, 248–255. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.09.028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, M. V., Ebbert, J. O., & Hays, J. T. (2008). Treatment of tobacco dependence. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 83(4), 479–484. doi:10.4065/83.4.479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caponnetto, P., & Polosa, R. (2008). Common predictors of smoking cessation in clinical practice. Respiratory Medicine, 102(8), 1182–1192. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2008.02.017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaiton, M., Cohen, J., Bondy, S., Selby, P., Brown, K., Ferrence, R., & Garcia, J. (2017). Perceived addiction as a predictor of smoking cessation among occasional smokers. Journal of Smoking Cessation, 12(3), 165–172. doi:10.1017/jsc.2015.19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, S., Ragg, M., & McGeechan, K. (2009). Citation bias in reported smoking prevalence in people with schizophrenia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 43(3), 277–282. doi:10.1080/00048670802653372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Civljak, M., Stead, L. F., Hartmann-Boyce, J., Sheikh, A., & Car, J. (2013). Internet-based interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews(7), Cd007078. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007078.pub4.Google Scholar
Compton, M. T., Daumit, G. L., & Druss, B. G. (2006). Cigarette smoking and overweight/obesity among individuals with serious mental illnesses: A preventive perspective. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 14(4), 212–222. doi:10.1080/10673220600889256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, B. L., Wayne, G. F., Kafali, E. N., Liu, Z., Shu, C., & Flores, M. (2014). Trends in smoking among adults with mental illness and association between mental health treatment and smoking cessation. JAMA, 311(2), 172–182. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.284985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Das, S., & Prochaska, J. J. (2017). Innovative approaches to support smoking cessation for individuals with mental illness and co-occurring substance use disorders. Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine, 11(10), 841–850. doi:10.1080/17476348.2017.1361823.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diaz, F. J., James, D., Botts, S., Maw, L., Susce, M. T., & de Leon, J. (2009). Tobacco smoking behaviors in bipolar disorder: A comparison of the general population, schizophrenia, and major depression. Bipolar Disorders, 11(2), 154–165. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2009.00664.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dixon, L. B., Medoff, D., Goldberg, R., Lucksted, A., Kreyenbuhl, J., DiClemente, C., … Afful, J. (2009). Is implementation of the 5 A's of smoking cessation at community mental health centers effective for reduction of smoking by patients with serious mental illness? The American Journal on Addictions, 18(5), 386–392. doi:10.3109/10550490903077747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Druss, B. G., Zhao, L., Von Esenwein, S., Morrato, E. H., & Marcus, S. C. (2011). Understanding excess mortality in persons with mental illness: 17-year follow up of a nationally representative US survey. Medical Care, 49(6), 599–604. doi:10.1097/MLR.0b013e31820bf86e.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fagerström, K. (2012). Determinants of tobacco use and renaming the FTND to the Fagerström test for cigarette dependence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 14(1), 75–78. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiore, M. C., Jaen, C. R., Baker, T. B., Bailey, W. C., Benowitz, N. L., Curry, S. J., … Wewers, M. E. (2008). Treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update U.S. public health service clinical practice guideline executive summary. Respiratory Care, 53(9), 1217–1222.Google Scholar
Fu, S. S., McFall, M., Saxon, A. J., Beckham, J. C., Carmody, T. P., Baker, D. G., … Joseph, A. M. (2007). Post-traumatic stress disorder and smoking: A systematic review. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9(11), 1071–1084. doi:10.1080/14622200701488418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Chou, S. P., Stinson, F. S., & Dawson, D. A. (2004). Nicotine dependence and psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(11), 1107–1115. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.11.1107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heather, N., Best, D., Kawalek, A., Field, M., Lewis, M., Rotgers, F., … Heim, D. (2018). Challenging the brain disease model of addiction: European launch of the addiction theory network. Addiction Research & Theory, 26(4), 249–255. doi:10.1080/16066359.2017.1399659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heatherton, T. F., Kozlowski, L. T., Frecker, R. C., & Fagerström, K. O. (1991). The Fagerström test for nicotine dependence: A revision of the Fagerström tolerance questionnaire. British Journal of Addiction, 86(9), 1119–1127. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1991.tb01879.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunt, Y. M. (2013). Self-reported quit rates among users of a national text message based cessation program: Early data from the national cancer institute's smokefreetxt. Boston, MA: Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.Google Scholar
Jamal, A., Phillips, E., Gentzke, A. S., Homa, D. M., Babb, S. D., King, B. A., & Neff, L. J. (2018). Current cigarette smoking among adults – United States, 2016. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67(2), 53–59. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6702a1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahende, J. W., Malarcher, A. M., Teplinskaya, A., & Asman, K. J. (2011). Quit attempt correlates among smokers by race/ethnicity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(10), 3871–3888. doi:10.3390/ijerph8103871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S., Myers, J., Damaj, M. I., & Chen, X. (2013). Early smoking onset and risk for subsequent nicotine dependence: A monozygotic co-twin control study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(4), 408–413. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12030321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerr, S., Woods, C., Knussen, C., Watson, H., & Hunter, R. (2013). Breaking the habit: A qualitative exploration of barriers and facilitators to smoking cessation in people with enduring mental health problems. BMC Public Health, 13, 221. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lancaster, T., & Stead, L. F. (2017). Individual behavioural counselling for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, Cd001292. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001292.pub3.Google ScholarPubMed
Landrine, H., Corral, I., & Campbell, K. M. (2018). Racial disparities in healthcare provider advice to quit smoking. Preventive Medicine Reports, 10, 172–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lasser, K., Boyd, J. W., Woolhandler, S., Himmelstein, D. U., McCormick, D., & Bor, D. H. (2000). Smoking and mental illness: A population-based prevalence study. JAMA, 284(20), 2606–2610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lichtenstein, E., Zhu, S.-H., & Tedeschi, G. J. (2010). Smoking cessation quitlines: An underrecognized intervention success story. The American Psychologist, 65(4), 252–261. doi:10.1037/a0018598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindson-Hawley, N., Thompson, T. P., & Begh, R. (2015). Motivational interviewing for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3), Cd006936. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006936.pub3.Google Scholar
Lipari, R. N., & Van Horn, S. (2017). Smoking and mental illness Among adults in the United States. In The CBHSQ Report (pp. 1-). Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US).Google Scholar
Lipari, R. N., & Van Horn, S. L. (2013). Trends in smokeless tobacco use and initiation: 2002 to 2014. In The CBHSQ Report (pp. 1–7). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US).Google Scholar
Martin, D. S. (1990). Physical dependence and attributions of addiction among cigarette smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 15(1), 69–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martino, S., Carroll, K., Kostas, D., Perkins, J., & Rounsaville, B. (2002). Dual diagnosis motivational interviewing: A modification of motivational interviewing for substance-abusing patients with psychotic disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 23(4), 297–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martínez, C., Guydish, J., Le, T., Tajima, B., & Passalacqua, E. (2015). Predictors of quit attempts among smokers enrolled in substance abuse treatment. Addictive Behaviors, 40, 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.08.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClave, A. K., McKnight-Eily, L. R., Davis, S. P., & Dube, S. R. (2010). Smoking characteristics of adults with selected lifetime mental illnesses: Results from the 2007 National Health Interview Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 100(12), 2464–2472. doi:10.2105/ajph.2009.188136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Messer, K., Trinidad, D. R., Al-Delaimy, W. K., & Pierce, J. P. (2008). Smoking cessation rates in the United States: A comparison of young adult and older smokers. American Journal of Public Health, 98(2), 317–322. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.112060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morphett, K., Carter, A., Hall, W., Lucke, J., Partridge, B., & Gartner, C. (2018). Do neurobiological understandings of smoking influence quitting self-efficacy or treatment intentions? Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 20(7), 827–835. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntx144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okoli, C. T. (2016). A comparison of survey measures and biomarkers of secondhand tobacco smoke exposure among nonsmokers. Public Health Nursing, 33(1), 82–89. doi:10.1111/phn.12207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okoli, C. T., Hall, L. A., Rayens, M. K., & Hahn, E. J. (2007). Measuring tobacco smoke exposure among smoking and nonsmoking bar and restaurant workers. Biological Research For Nursing, 9(1), 81–89. doi:10.1177/1099800407300852.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okoli, C. T., Mason, D. A., Brumley-Shelton, A., & Robertson, H. (2017). Providing tobacco treatment in a community mental health setting: A pilot study. Journal of Addiction Nursing, 28(1), 34–41. doi:10.1097/jan.0000000000000157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okoli, C. T., & Seng, S. (2019). Correlates of tobacco use and consumption among hospitalized psychiatric patients. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 41(8), 1121–1136. doi: 10.1177/0193945918823483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pechacek, T. F., Nayak, P., Slovic, P., Weaver, S. R., Huang, J., & Eriksen, M. P. (2018). Reassessing the importance of ‘lost pleasure’ associated with smoking cessation: Implications for social welfare and policy. Tobacco Control, 27(e2), e143–e151. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-053734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peckham, E., Bradshaw, T. J., Brabyn, S., Knowles, S., & Gilbody, S. (2016). Exploring why people with SMI smoke and why they may want to quit: Baseline data from the SCIMITAR RCT. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 23(5), 282–289. doi:10.1111/jpm.12241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perski, O., Herd, N., West, R., & Brown, J. (2019). Perceived addiction to smoking and associations with motivation to stop, quit attempts and quitting success: A prospective study of English smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 90, 306–311. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.11.030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piper, M. E., Smith, S. S., Schlam, T. R., Fleming, M. F., Bittrich, A. A., Brown, J. L., … Baker, T. B. (2010). Psychiatric disorders in smokers seeking treatment for tobacco dependence: Relations with tobacco dependence and cessation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(1), 13–23. doi:10.1037/a0018065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pratt, L. A., Druss, B. G., Manderscheid, R. W., & Walker, E.R. (2015). Excess mortality due to depression and anxiety in the United States: Results from a nationally representative survey. General Hospital Psychiatry 39, 39–45. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.12.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prochaska, J. J., Das, S., & Young-Wolff, K. C. (2017). Smoking, mental illness, and public health. Annual Review of Public Health, 38, 165–185. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prochaska, J. J., Reyes, R. S., Schroeder, S. A., Daniels, A. S., Doederlein, A., & Bergeson, B. (2011). An online survey of tobacco use, intentions to quit, and cessation strategies among people living with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disorders, 13(5–6), 466–473. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2011.00944.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rafful, C., García-Rodríguez, O., Wang, S., Secades-Villa, R., Martínez-Ortega, J. M., & Blanco, C. (2013). Predictors of quit attempts and successful quit attempts in a nationally representative sample of smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 38(4), 1920–1923. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.12.019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rayens, M. K., Hahn, E. J., Fernander, A., & Okoli, C. T. (2013). Racially classified social group differences in cigarette smoking, nicotine dependence, and readiness to quit. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 24(2), 71–81. doi:10.1097/JAN.0b013e31829293b0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, E., Eden Evins, A., McNeill, A., & Robson, D. (2016). Efficacy and tolerability of pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation in adults with serious mental illness: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Addiction, 111(4), 599–612. doi:10.1111/add.13236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schauer, G. L., Malarcher, A. M., Zhang, L., Engstrom, M. C., & Zhu, S. H. (2014). Prevalence and correlates of quitline awareness and utilization in the United States: An update from the 2009–2010 national adult tobacco survey. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 16(5), 544–553. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntt181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheals, K., Tombor, I., McNeill, A., & Shahab, L. (2016). A mixed-method systematic review and meta-analysis of mental health professionals’ attitudes toward smoking and smoking cessation among people with mental illnesses. Addiction, 111(9), 1536–1553. doi:10.1111/add.13387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soneji, S., Barrington-Trimis, J. L., Wills, T. A., Leventhal, A. M., Unger, J. B., Gibson, L. A., … Sargent, J. D. (2017). Association between initial use of e-cigarettes and subsequent cigarette smoking among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 171(8), 788–797. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.1488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soulakova, J. N., & Crockett, L. J. (2017). Unassisted quitting and smoking cessation methods used in the United States: Analyses of 2010–2011 tobacco use supplement to the current population survey data. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 20(1), 30–39. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntw273.Google ScholarPubMed
Stead, L. F., Koilpillai, P., Fanshawe, T. R., & Lancaster, T. (2016). Combined pharmacotherapy and behavioural interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, Cd008286. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008286.pub3.Google ScholarPubMed
Stockings, E., Bowman, J., McElwaine, K., Baker, A., Terry, M., Clancy, R., … Wiggers, J. (2013). Readiness to quit smoking and quit attempts among Australian mental health inpatients. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 15(5), 942–949. doi:10.1093/ntr/nts206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taioli, E., & Wynder, E. L. (1991). Effect of the age at which smoking begins on frequency of smoking in adulthood. New England Journal of Medicine, 325(13), 968–969. doi:10.1056/nejm199109263251318.Google ScholarPubMed
Taylor, G., McNeill, A., Girling, A., Farley, A., Lindson-Hawley, N., & Aveyard, P. (2014). Change in mental health after smoking cessation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ, 348, g1151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teater, B., & Hammond, G. C. (2010). Exploring smoking prevalence, quit attempts, and readiness to quit cigarette use among women in substance abuse treatment. Social Work in Health Care, 49(2), 176–192. doi:10.1080/00981380903213006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trinidad, D. R., Pérez-Stable, E. J., White, M. M., Emery, S. L., & Messer, K. (2011). A nationwide analysis of US racial/ethnic disparities in smoking behaviors, smoking cessation, and cessation-related factors. American Journal of Public Health, 101(4), 699–706. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2010.191668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tulloch, H. E., Pipe, A. L., Clyde, M. J., Reid, R. D., & Els, C. (2016). The quit experience and concerns of smokers with psychiatric illness. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(6), 709–718. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.11.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Twyman, L., Bonevski, B., Paul, C., & Bryant, J. (2014). Perceived barriers to smoking cessation in selected vulnerable groups: A systematic review of the qualitative and quantitative literature. BMJ Open, 4(12), e006414–e006414. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Department of Agriculture (2016). Rural-urban continuum codes. Retrieved from https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/rural-urban-continuum-codes/.Google Scholar
US Department of Health and Human Services (2014). The health consequences of smoking-50 years of progress. A report of the surgeon general. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health.Google Scholar
Wang, T. W., Asman, K., Gentzke, A. S., Cullen, K. A., Holder-Hayes, E., Reyes-Guzman, C., … King, B. A. (2018). Tobacco product use among adults – United States, 2017. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67(44), 1225–1232. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6744a2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West (2009). The multiple facets of cigarette addiction and what they mean for encouraging and helping smokers to stop. Copd, 6(4), 277–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West (2017). Tobacco smoking: Health impact, prevalence, correlates and interventions. Psychology & Health, 32(8), 1018–1036. doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1325890.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, J. M., Steinberg, M. L., Kenefake, A. N., & Burke, M. V. (2016). An argument for change in tobacco treatment options guided by the ASAM criteria for patient placement. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 10(5), 291–299. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (2018). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th revision). Retrieved December 12, 2019, from https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/enGoogle Scholar
Xu, X., Bishop, E. E., Kennedy, S. M., Simpson, S. A., & Pechacek, T. F. (2015). Annual healthcare spending attributable to cigarette smoking: An update. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 48(3), 326–333. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2014.10.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed