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The Political Development of Schools as Cause and Solution to Delinquency
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 April 2022
Abstract
This article offers a comprehensive history of the development of the federal role in education and juvenile justice policy from the 1950s to the 1970s. We argue that the issues of juvenile delinquency and education became linked during this period and policies that were enacted reflected the belief that education was a solution to delinquency. In the mid-twentieth century, a broader variety of approaches to antidelinquency, such as public job creation for youth, began to fall out of favor and education became elevated as the primary policy area for addressing delinquency outside the criminal justice system. Policy makers frequently justified federal involvement in education by arguing that schools were central to antidelinquency efforts. Drawing educational institutions into the fight against delinquency made schools susceptible to the punitive turn in crime policy. Ultimately, these developments have introduced punitive policies into schools and pushed antidelinquency efforts away from broader structural reforms.
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Footnotes
We would like to thank Marie Gottschalk, Rogers Smith, Anthony Grasso, Joanna Wuest, Carly Regina, Kirstine Taylor, Nicole Kaufman, Timothy Cate, and the anonymous reviewers for the Journal of Policy History for their invaluable feedback.
References
NOTES
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90. In 1971, the federal government spent eight times as much on federal aid to states for criminal justice as it did for crime prevention through health and human services. Schoenfeld, Heather, Building the Prison State: Race & The Politics of Mass Incarceration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017).Google Scholar
91. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Judiciary, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974, S. Rep. No. 93-1011, 2d Sess. 31 (1974). Importantly, a substantial portion of this money was being spent on prevention and diversion efforts within schools. S. Rep. No. 93-1011, at 88–89 (1974).
92. See “The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974,” Chronology, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. The text of the 1973 Amendment reads, “No State plan shall be approved as comprehensive, unless it includes a comprehensive program, whether or not funded under this title, for the improvement of juvenile justice.” An Act to Amend Title I of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Street Act of 1968 to Improve Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, and for Other Purposes, Pub. L. No. 93-83, 87 Stat. 201 (1973).
93. The shift in responsibility from HEW to the DOJ was introduced as an amendment to the original bill in the Senate Committee process and was passed by a coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats.
94. The administrator of the OJJDP was to be appointed by the President and subject to Senate Confirmation.
95. An Act to Provide a Comprehensive, Coordinated Approach to the problems of Juvenile Delinquency, and for other Purposes, Pub. L. No. 93-415, 88 Stat. 1129 (1974).
96. The House of Representatives voted 329-20 to pass the bill, and the Senate voted 88-1 in favor. “Juvenile Delinquency,” in CQ Almanac 1974, 30th ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1975): 278–82.
97. Hinton, “Creating Crime.”
98. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974, at 20.
99. U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act, S. 3148 and S. 821, 92nd Cong., 2nd sess. 297 (1972).
100. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Select Committee, Street Crime in America, at 774.
101. Street Crime in America, at 794.
102. An Act to Provide a Comprehensive, Coordinated Approach to the Problems of Juvenile Delinquency, and for other Purposes, at 1110. Despite the greater association with law enforcement, the 1974 JJDPA still clearly advocated against harsh punitive measures within schools—such as suspension and expulsion (still in the pre-get-tough era).
103. An Act to Provide a Comprehensive, Coordinated Approach to the Problems of Juvenile Delinquency, and for Other Purposes, at 1127.
104. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974, at 23.
105. Hinton, “Creating Crime.”
106. Hinton, From the War on Poverty.
107. Aviram, Hadar, Cheap on Crime: Recession-Era Politics and the Transformation of American Punishment (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gottschalk, Marie The Prisons and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)Google Scholar; Martinson, Robert, “What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform,” The Public Interest 35, (1974): 22 Google Scholar.
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109. Hinton, From the War on Poverty.
110. U.S. Congress, Senate, Subcommittee Safe Schools Act, 93rd Cong., 1st sess. (1973), at 5.
111. Shanker advocated increasing security personnel, funding alternative educational programs, and expanding narcotics education. Safe Schools Act, 41–50.
112. The 1975 hearing included teachers and administrators from around the country who spoke of the concerns about violence in schools. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, School Violence and Vandalism S. Res. 72 and S. 12, 94th Cong., 1st sess. (1975).
113. School Violence and Vandalism, at 295.
114. National Institute of Education, Violent Schools–Safe Schools: The Safe School Study Report to the Congress, Vol. 1 (U.S. Department of Justice, 1978), 145.
115. Hinton, “Creating Crime,” 808.
116. Violent Schools, 145.
117. Violent Schools, 145.
118. Giroux, Henry A., “Chapter Four: Punishment Creep and the Crisis of Youth in the Age of Disposability,” Counterpoints 453, (2014): 69–68Google Scholar; Cusac, Anne-Marie, Cruel and Unusual: The Culture of Punishment in America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.
119. Mallett, “The School-To-Prison Pipeline;” Nancy Heitzeg, “Education or Incarceration: Zero Tolerance Policies and the School to Prison Pipeline,” Forum on Public Policy Online 2009, no. 2; Kathy Koch, “Zero Tolerance for School Violence,” CQ Researcher 10, (March 10, 2000); James Bennet, “Clinton Urges Stricter Rules in Schools,” The New York Times, July 21, 1998; Deborah Fowler, “School Discipline Feeds the ‘Pipeline to Prison,’” The Phi Delta Kappan 93, no. 2 (October 2011): 14‑19. Oxford Round Table, Urbana, IL; Christina Pigott, Ami E. Stearns, and David N. Khey, “School Resource Officers and the School to Prison Pipeline: Discovering Trends of Expulsions in Public Schools,” American Journal of Criminal Justice 43, no. 1 (2018): 120–38.
120. One example was Reagan’s Secretary of Education, William Bennett. During his tenure, Bennett supported the expansion of school vouchers and was an outspoken supporter of the War on Drugs. In 1986 Bennett urged Congress to withhold federal funds from schools that did not adopt zero-tolerance policies for students using or selling drugs at school. Kathy Koch, “Zero Tolerance for School Violence.” For an extended discussion on Bennett’s role in leading the Republican embrace of federal education policy for their own purposes, see Debray, Elizabeth H., Politics, Ideology, and Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 2006)Google Scholar.
121. The new law required school districts to develop gun-free laws (specifically a mandatory one-year expulsion for students who bring a weapon to school) to receive federal funds for their schools. The act also provided money for metal detectors and school security personnel training. Hirschfield, P. J., “Preparing for Prison? The Criminalization of School Discipline in the USA,” Theoretical Criminology 12, no. 1 (2008): 79–101 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Heitzeg, N. A., “Education or Incarceration: Zero Tolerance Policies and the School to Prison Pipeline,” in Forum on Public Policy Online 2009, no. 2 (2009)Google Scholar; Skiba, R. J. and Knesting, K., “Zero Tolerance, Zero Evidence: An Analysis of School Disciplinary Practice,” New Directions for Student Leadership 2001, no. 92 (2001): 17–43 Google ScholarPubMed; Marsh, S., School Pathways to Juvenile Justice System Project (Reno, NV: National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, 2014)Google Scholar; Mallett, C. A., “The School-to-Prison Pipeline: A Critical Review of the Punitive Paradigm Shift,” Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 33, no. 1 (2016): 15–24 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
122. The Republican Party framed school choice in their 2000 platform as a policy to “help states ensure school safety by letting children in dangerous schools transfer to schools that are safe for learning.” (“2000 Republican Party Platform,” July 31, 2000, in The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/2000-republican-party-platform). In the same year the Democratic Party stated in their platform: “We need revolutionary improvements in our public schools. This requires … a genuine expansion of public school choice; and a renewed focus on discipline, character, and safety in our schools.” (“2000 Democratic Party Platform,” August 14, 2000, in The American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/2000-democratic-party-platform.
123. Steffes, Schools, Society, and State, 8.
124. Steinberg, Matthew P., Allensworth, E., and Johnson, D. W., Student and Teacher Safety in Chicago Public Schools: The Roles of Community Context and School Social Organization (Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research, 2011)Google Scholar; Steinberg, Matthew P. and Lacoe, Johanna, “What Do We Know about School Discipline Reform? Assessing the Alternatives to Suspension and Expulsions,” Education Next 17, no. 1 (2017): 44–52 Google Scholar; Peguero, Anthony A. and Bracy, Nicole L., “School Order, Justice, and Education: Climate, Discipline Practices, and Dropping out,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 25, no. 3 (2015): 412–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Raffaele-Mendez, Linda M., “Predictors of Suspension and Negative Outcomes: A Longitudinal Investigation,” New Directions for Youth Development 99, (2003): 17–33 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Steinberg, and Lacoe, , “What Do We Know”; Rebecca Hinze-Pifer and Lauren Sartain, “Rethinking Universal Suspension for Severe Student Behavior,” Peabody Journal of Education 93, no. 2 (2018): 228–43Google Scholar.
125. Some of the most popular policies are, Positive Behavioral Interventions Support (PBIS), Aggression Replacement Therapy (ART), Forward Thinking, Check in/Check out, reflective journaling, resilience education, and the “whole-child approach.” Notably, these programs are primarily designed and implemented by private nonprofit or for-profit organizations.