Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T17:53:36.712Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

On the Importance of Naming: Gender, Race, and the Writing of Policy History

Part of: JPH 30th Anniversary Most Cited

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 April 2009

Eileen Boris
Eileen Boris
Affiliation:
University of California at Santa Barbara
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Twenty years ago, just as the study of policy was emerging out of the morass of political history, historians of women rediscovered the state. What I will name the policy turn challenged a kind of intellectual separate sphere in which women's history addressed home, family, and intimate life and left to other historians everything else. The policy turn shifted attention from Carroll Smith Rosenberg's “Female World of Love and Ritual” without losing the self-activity and focus on female difference that investigations of women on their own terms had supplied. It answered the “Politics and Culture” debate of 1980, which revolved around the efficacy of domesticity as an arena for power with a resounding move toward the public, political realm—namely, to social politics. The Reaganite assault on the New Deal order and accompanying New Right attack on women's rights intensified investigation into the origins and growth of a welfare state whose strength seemed precarious and whose history was up for grabs—a welfare state that blurred the separation of private and public and constructed, even as it reinforced, unequal social locations.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Policy History , Volume 17 , Issue 1: Special Issue: New Directions in Policy History , January 2005 , pp. 72 - 92
Copyright
Copyright © The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. 2005

References

Notes

1. The best account of the development of policy history is Zelizer, Julian E., “Clio's Lost Tribe: Public Policy History Since 1978,” Journal of Policy History 12 (2000), 369–394Google Scholar; for a personalistic one hostile to gender analysis, see Alchon, Guy, “Policy History and the Sublime Immodesty of the Middle Age Professor,” Journal of Policy History 9 (1997): 358–374.Google Scholar

2. Rosenberg, Carroll Smith, “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations Between Women in Nineteenth-Century America,” Signs: A Journal of Women in Culture and Society 1 (1975): 1–29Google Scholar; Smith, Daniel Scott, “Family Limitation, Sexual Control, and Domestic Feminism in Victorian America,” Feminist Studies 1 (1973): 40–57Google Scholar; Cott, Nancy, “Passionlessness: An Interpretation of Victorian Sexual Ideology, 1790–1850,” Signs: A Journal of Women in Culture and Society 4 (1978): 219–236.Google Scholar

3. Walkowitz, Judith R., “Introduction: Politics and Culture in Women's History: A Symposium,” Feminist Studies 6 (1980): 26ff.Google Scholar

4. Erie, Steven P., Rein, Martin, and Wiget, Barbara, “Women and the Reagan Revolution: Thermidor for the Social Welfare Economy,” in Diamond, Irene, ed., Families, Politics, and Public Policy: A Feminist Dialogue on Women and the State (New York, 1983), 94–119Google Scholar; Brown, Michel K., ed., Remaking the Welfare State: Retrenchment and Social Policy in America and Europe (Philadelphia, 1988).Google Scholar

5. This was the context in which Peter Bardaglio and I wrote “The Transformation of Patriarchy: The Historic Role of the State,” in Diamond, Families, Politics, and Public Policy, 70–93.

6. Ware, Susan, Beyond Suffrage: Women in the New Deal (Cambridge, 1981)Google Scholar; Sealander, Judith, As Minority Becomes Majority: Federal Reaction to the Phenomenon of Women in the Work Force, 1920–1963 (Westport, Conn., 1983)Google Scholar; Harrison, Cynthia, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945–1968 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1988).Google Scholar

7. One way to trace this trajectory is Nicholson, Linda, ed., The Second Wave: A Reader in Feminist Theory (New York, 1997)Google Scholar, in comparison with McCann, Carole and Kim, Seung-Kyung, Feminist Theory Reader: Local and Global Perspectives (New York, 2003).Google Scholar

8. Scott, Joan Wallach, “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis,” in Scott, , Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988), 49–50.Google Scholar

9. Even Carroll Smith-Rosenberg engaged in this change; see “Dis-Covering the Subject of the ‘Great Constitutional Discussion,’ 1786–1789,” Journal of American History 79 (1992): 841–873Google Scholar. War and taxes of course come to mind: for example, Cohn, Carol, “Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals,” Signs 12 (1987): 687–718Google Scholar; Whites, Lee Ann, “The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender,” in Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War, ed. Clinton, Catherine and Silber, Nina (New York, 1992)Google Scholar; Kessler-Harris, Alice, “‘A Principle of Law But Not of Justice’: Men, Women, and Income Taxes in the United States, 1913–1948,” Southern California Review of Law and Women's Studies 6 (1997): 331–360.Google Scholar

10. For an excellent explication, see Enstad, Nan, Ladies of Labor, Girls of Adventure: Working Women, Popular Culture, and Labor Politics at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (New York, 1999), 109–110.Google Scholar

11. Butler, Judith, “Critically Queer,” in Bodies That Matter (New York, 1993), 224–225Google Scholar. See also idem, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York, 1989).Google Scholar

12. Of course, these scholars draw upon Foucault, Michael, The History of Sexuality (New York, 1980), vol. 1Google Scholar. See the impact of the law in the now-classic work of Chauncey, George, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890–1940 (New York, 1994)Google Scholar, and, more recently, Boyd, Nan Alamilla, Wide Open Town: A History of Queer San Francisco to 1965 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2003).Google Scholar

13. Boris, Eileen, “Labor's Welfare State: Defining Workers, Constructing Citizens,” in Grossberg, Michael and Tomlins, Christopher, eds., Cambridge Encyclopedia of American Law, vol. 3 (New York, forthcoming).Google Scholar

14. Boris, Eileen, “The Racialized Gendered State: Constructions of Citizenship in the United States,” Social Politics 2 (1995): 160–180.Google Scholar

15. For the concept of racialized gender, I have extrapolated from such scholars as Glenn, Evelyn Nakano, “From Servitude to Service Work: Historical Continuities in the Racial Division of Women's Work,” Signs 18 (1992): 1–43Google Scholar, Williams, Fiona, Social Policy: A Critical Introduction to Issues of Race, Gender, and Class (Cambridge, 1989)Google Scholar, and Mink, Gwendolyn, The Wages of Motherhood: Inequality in the Welfare State, 1917–1942 (Ithaca, 1995)Google Scholar. See also Liu, Tessie, “Teaching Differences among Women from a Historical Perspective: Rethinking Race and Gender as Social Categories,” Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 265–276Google Scholar, and my “‘You Wouldn't Want One of ‘Em Dancing With Your Wife’: Racialized Bodies on the Job in WWII,” American Quarterly 50 (1998): 77–108Google Scholar. For marriage, see Moran, Rachel F., Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and Romance (Chicago, 2001)Google Scholar, and Pascoe, Peggy, “Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of ‘Race’ in 20th-Century America,” Journal of American History 83 (1996): 44–69.Google Scholar

16. For example, Quadagno, Jill, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York, 1994)Google Scholar; Hamilton, Dona C. and Hamilton, Charles V., The Dual Agenda: Race and Social Welfare Policies of Civil Rights Organizations (New York, 1997)Google Scholar; Lieberman, Robert C., Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, 1998)Google Scholar; and Brown, Michael K., Race, Money, and The American Welfare State (Ithaca: 1999).Google Scholar

17. See my “‘The Right to Work Is the Right to Live!’ Fair Employment and the Quest for Social Citizenship,” in Berg, Manfred and Geyer, Martin H., eds., Two Cultures of Rights: The Quest for Inclusion and Participation in Modern America and Germany (New York, 2002), 121–141Google Scholar, in which I consider “working-class voices” in the conception of fair employment; and Kornbluh, Felicia, “‘To Fulfill Their Rightly Needs’: Consumerism and the National Welfare Rights Movement,” Radical History Review, no. 69 (1997): 76–113Google Scholar, for poor women's reconceptualization of their rights. These also take the form of local history or case studies: for one model, see Williams, Rhonda on mid-century Baltimore, The Politics of Public Housing: Black Women's Struggles Against Urban Inequality (New York, 2005)Google Scholar; for another, Lipsitz, George, A Life in the Struggle: Ivory Perry and the Culture of Opposition (Philadelphia, 1988)Google Scholar. Much of the literature on civil rights organizing can be reread through a policy history perspective.

18. For example, Crenshaw, Kimberle, “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory, and Anti-racist Politics,” University of Chicago Legal Forum 139 (1989): 139–167.Google Scholar

19. This process they name “racialization.” Omni, Michael and Winant, Howard, Racial Formation in the United States, 2d ed. (New York, 1994)Google Scholar. See also Winant, Howard, The World Is a Ghetto: Race and Democracy Since World War II (New York, 2001).Google Scholar

20. Winant, Howard, Racial Conditions: Politics, Theory, Comparisons (Minneapolis, 1994), 23Google Scholar, as quoted by Gordon, Linda, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, 1999), 99Google Scholar. Gordon provides an excellent summary of the social constructionist theory of race and of competing and changing racial systems in the Southwest a century ago.

21. For example, Ruiz, Vicki L., “Tapestries of Resistance: Episodes of School Segregation and Desegregation in the U.S. West,” in Lau, Peter, ed., From Grassroots to the Supreme Court: Exploration of Brown V. Board of Education and American Democracy (Durham, forthcoming)Google Scholar, provides a new context for civil rights based on Latina/Latino struggles, showing that these did not necessarily follow the black freedom movement but existed in tandem and perhaps helped to shape its legal strategy.

22. This literature is huge, not usually thought of as part of policy history, but often addresses the impact of policy or state action. See, for example, Fields, Barbara Jeanne, “Slavery, Race, and Ideology in the United States of America,” New Left Review 181 (1990): 95–118Google Scholar; Roediger, David, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York, 1991)Google Scholar; Barrett, James R. and Roediger, David, “Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality, and the “New Immigrant” Working Class,” Journal of American Ethnic History 16 (1997): 3–45Google Scholar; Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, 1998)Google Scholar; López, Ian F. Haney, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996)Google Scholar; Lipsitz, George, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics (Philadelphia, 1998)Google Scholar; Bodkin, Karin, How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America (New Brunswick, 1998)Google Scholar; and Hale, Grace Elizabeth, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940 (New York, 1999)Google Scholar. For a critical assessment, see Arnesen, Eric, “Whiteness and the Historian's Imagination,” International Labor and Working-Class History 60 (2001): 3–32Google Scholar, and the rejoinders in the rest of that issue, 33–92.

23. Glenn, Evelyn Nakano, Unequal Freedom: How Race and Gender Shaped American Citizenship and Labor (Cambridge, 2002)Google Scholar, and, most powerfully, Ngai, Mae M., Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, 2004)Google Scholar, nicely exemplify these trends. See also Yu, Henry, Thinking Orientals: Migration, Contact, and Exoticism in Modern America (New York, 2001)Google Scholar; Lowe, Lisa, Immigrant Acts (Durham, 1996)Google Scholar; Foley, Neil, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1997)Google Scholar; Koshy, Susan, “Morphing Race into Ethnicity: Asian Americans and Critical Transformations of Whiteness,” boundary 2, no. 28 (2001): 151–191Google Scholar; Palumbo-Liu, David, Asian/American: Historical Crossings of a Racial Frontier (Stanford, 1999)Google Scholar; Gutíerrez, David, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1995)Google Scholar; and Almaguer, Tómas, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1994).Google Scholar

24. The other essays in this special issue testify to that generative scholarship.

25. Weir, Margaret, Orloff, Ann Shola, and Skocpol, Theda, The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1988).Google Scholar

26. This discussion of maternalism elaborates upon Boris, Eileen and Kleinberg, S. J., “Mothers and Other Workers: (Re)Conceiving Labor, Maternalism, and the State,” Journal of Women's History 15 (2003): 100–103.Google Scholar

27. For one excellent account, see Cobble, Dorothy Sue, The Other Women's Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, 2003), esp. 215–19.Google Scholar

28. Gilligan, Carol, In a Different Voice (Cambridge, 1982).Google Scholar

29. Kessler-Harris, Alice, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York, 1982)Google Scholar; for how this argument became twisted against her in the 1986 drama of EEOC v. Sears, Roebuck and Co. and the impact of this case on feminist theory, see Scott, Joan W., “Deconstructing Equality-Versus-Difference: or, the Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism,” Feminist Studies 14 (Spring 1988): 32–50.Google Scholar

30. Kessler-Harris, Alice, A Women's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington, 1990)Google Scholar; idem, In Pursuit of Equity: Men, Women, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in 20th-Century America (New York, 2001).

31. Koven, Seth and Michel, Sonya, “Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, 1880–1920,” American Historical Review 95 (10 1990): 1076–1109.Google Scholar

32. Skocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, 1992), 56.Google Scholar

33. Ann Shola Orloff made a similar argument for old-age pensions; see The Politics of Pensions: A Comparative Analysis of Britain, Canada, and the United States, 1880–1940 (Madison, 1993).Google Scholar

34. More recently Willrich, Michael has explored the use of the courts to control the working-class, predominantly urban European immigrant, in “Home Slackers: Men, the State, and Welfare in Modern America,” Journal of American History 87 (2000): 460–489Google Scholar. See also my Home to Work: Motherhood and the Politics of Industrial Homework in the United States (New York, 1994).Google Scholar

35. Alice Kessler-Harris, review of Skocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States, The Journal of American History 80 (10 1993): 1035–1037.Google Scholar

36. Sklar, Kathryn Kish, Schuler, Anja, and Strasser, Susan, Social Justice Feminists in the United States and Germany: A Dialogue in Documents, 1885–1933 (Ithaca, 1998), 5–7Google Scholar. See also Goodwin, Joanne, Gender and the Politics of Welfare Reform: Mothers' Pensions in Chicago, 1911–1929 (Chicago, 1997)Google Scholar. For other rejections of maternalism, see Storrs, Landon R. Y., Civilizing Capitalism: The National Consumers' League, Women's Activism, and Labor Standards in the New Deal Era (Chapel Hill, 2000)Google Scholar, who uses feminist, and Lipschultz, Sybil, “Social Feminism and Legal Discourse: 1908–1923,” Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 2 (1989): 131–160Google Scholar, who refers to industrial feminism.

37. For a fuller critique, see Gordon, Linda, “Gender, State, and Society: A Debate with Theda Skocpol,” Contention 2 (1993)Google Scholar, reprinted in Keddie, Nikki R., ed., Debating Gender, Debating Sexuality (New York, 1996), 129–146, quote at 141.Google Scholar

38. Nelson, Barbara J., “The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid,” in Gordon, Linda, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison, 1990), 123–151Google Scholar; Mettler, Suzanne, Dividing Citizens: Gender and Federalism in New Deal Public Policy (Ithaca, 1998).Google Scholar

39. Gordon, Linda, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare (New York, 1994)Google Scholar; see also Polsky, Andrew J., The Rise of the Therapeutic State (Princeton, 1991).Google Scholar

40. Gordon, Linda, “The New Feminist Scholarship on the Welfare State,” in Gordon, , ed., Women, the State, and Welfare, 25Google Scholar; Gwendolyn Mink, “The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State,” in ibid., 93, 111. She elaborates her thesis in The Wages of Motherhood.

41. See Boris, Eileen, “The Power of Motherhood: Black and White Activist Women Redefine the ‘Political,’” Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 2 (Fall 1989): 25–49Google Scholar, reprinted in Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World, 213–45.

42. Schechter, Patricia A., Ida B. Wells-Barnett and American Reform, 1880–1930 (Chapel Hill, 2001).Google Scholar

43. Gordon, Linda, Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence, Boston, 1880–1960 (New York, 1988)Google Scholar; Odem, Mary, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885–1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).Google Scholar

44. For one excellent example of self-help and grassroots efforts, Hewitt, Nancy, Southern Discomfort: Women's Activism in Tampa, Florida, 1880s–1920s (Urbana, 2001).Google Scholar

45. Michel, Sonya, “The Limits of Maternalism: Policies toward American Wage-Earning Mothers during the Progressive Era,” in Koven, and Michel, , eds., Mothers of a New World, 298–300.Google Scholar

46. Kleinberg, S. J., “The Economic Origins of the Welfare State, 1870–1939,“ in Bak, Hans, van Holthoon, Frits, and Krabbendam, Hans, eds., Social and Secure? Politics and Culture of the Welfare State: A Comparative Inquiry (Amsterdam, 1996), 94–116.Google Scholar

47. Michel, Sonya, Children's Interests, Mothers' Rights: The Shaping of America's Child-Care Policy (New Haven, 1999)Google Scholar; Rose, Elizabeth, A Mother's Job: The History of Day Care, 1890–1960 (New York, 1999)Google Scholar; Stoltzfus, Emilie, Citizen, Mother, Worker: Debating Public Responsibility for Child Care After the Second World War (Chapel Hill, 2003).Google Scholar

48. Sarvasy, Wendy, “Social Citizenship from a Feminist Perspective,” Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy 12 (1997): 54–74Google Scholar. See also her “Beyond the Difference versus Equality Policy Debate: Postsuffrage Feminism, Citizenship, and the Quest for a Feminist Welfare State,” Signs 17 (1992): 329–363.Google Scholar

49. Sterett, Susan M., Public Pensions: Gender and Civic Service in the States, 1850–1937 (Ithaca, 2003), esp. 105–6, 102.Google Scholar

50. Esping-Andersen, Gøsta, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Princeton, 1990).Google Scholar

51. Orloff, Ann Shola, “Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship,” American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 303–328Google Scholar; O'Connor, Julia, Orloff, Ann Shola, and Shaver, Shelia, States, Markets, Families: Gender, Liberalism, and Social Policy in Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and the United States (Cambridge, 1999).Google Scholar

52. For a friendly critique, see my “The Racialized Gendered State Revisited,” in Shackleton, Mark and Toivonen, Maarika, eds., Roots and Renewal: Writings by Bicentennial Fulbright Professors (Helsinki, 2001), 45–57.Google Scholar

53. Sklar, Kathryn Kish, “The Historical Foundations of Women's Power in the Creation of the American Welfare State, 1830–1930,” in Koven, and Michel, , eds., Mothers of a New World, 43–93Google Scholar; Boris, “‘The Right to Work Is the Right to Live!’”

54. Marshall, T. H., Citizenship and Social Class (Cambridge, 1952)Google Scholar; Kessler-Harris, Alice, “Gender Identity: Rights to Work and the Idea of Economic Citizenship,” Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Geschichte 46 (1996): 414–417Google Scholar. For modifications, see also Fraser, Nancy and Gordon, Linda, “Contract Versus Charity: Why Is There No Social Citizenship in the United States?” Socialist Review 22 (1992): 45–68Google Scholar; Lister, Ruth, “Tracing the Contours of Women's Citizenship,” Policy and Politics 21 (1993): 3–16Google Scholar; Kerber, Linda K., “The Meanings of Citizenship,” Journal of American History 84 (1997): 833–854Google Scholar, most completely accounts for race, class, gender, and nation, offering a model synthesis.

55. Stoltzfus, Citizen, Mother, Worker, 14; Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity, 5, 288.

56. Roberts, Dorothy, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York, 1999)Google Scholar: Schoen, Johanna, Choice and Coercion, Birth Control, Sterilization, and Abortion in Public Health and Welfare (Chapel Hill, 2005)Google Scholar; Solinger, Rickie, Beggars and Choosers: How the Politics of Choice Shapes Adoption, Abortion, and Welfare in the United States (New York, 2001)Google Scholar. See also my “Citizenship Embodied: Racialized Gender and the Construction of Nationhood in the United States,” in Finzsch, Norbert and Schirmer, Dietmar, eds., Identity and Intolerance: Nationalism, Racism, and Xenophobia in Germany and the United States (New York, 1998), 325–329.Google Scholar

57. Boris, “‘The Right to Work Is the Right to Live!’”

58. For example, Chang, Grace, Disposable Domestics: Immigrant Women Workers in the Global Economy (Boston, 2000).Google Scholar

59. Nakano Glenn, Unequal Freedom.

60. Here I draw upon my “Changing Debate on Work and Family Lives: A Historical Perspective,” in Beem, Christopher and Heymann, Jody, eds., Unfinished Work: Building Equality and Democracy in an Era of Working Families (New York, forthcoming 2005)Google Scholar; see also Mettler, Dividing Citizens, and Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line.

61. Klein, Jennifer, For All These Rights: Business, Labor, and the Shaping of America's Public Private Welfare State (Princeton, 2003.)Google Scholar

62. Boris, Eileen and Michel, Sonya, “Social Citizenship and Women's Right to Work in Postwar America,” in Women's Rights and Human Rights: International Historical Perspectives, ed. Grimshaw, Pat, Lake, Marilyn, and Holmes, Katie (New York, 2001), 199–219.Google Scholar

63. Cobble, The Other Women's Movement, 223–25.

64. For one declension narrative, see Graebner, William, “The End of Liberalism: Narrating Welfare's Decline, from the Moynihan Report (1965) to the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act (1960),” Journal of Policy History 14 (2002): 170–190Google Scholar; for its invention, see Katz, Michael B. and Thomas, Lorrin R., “The Invention of Welfare in America,” Journal of Policy History, 10 (1998): 399–418.Google Scholar

65. Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity, 130–56, quote from 132; see also her earlier essay, “Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939,” in U.S. History as Women's History: New Feminist Essays, ed. Kerber, Linda K., Kessler-Harris, Alice, and Sklar, Kathryn Kish (Chapel Hill, 1995), 87–106.Google Scholar

66. Mink, Wages of Motherhood, 137.

67. On this point, see also Frances Fox Piven, “Welfare and Work,” Whose Welfare? 83–99; Neubeck, Kenneth J. and Cazenave, Noel A., Welfare Racism: Playing the Race Card Against America's Poor (New York, 2001), 35–36.Google Scholar

68. Goodwin, Joanne, “‘Employable Mothers’ and ‘Suitable Work’: A Re-evaluation of Welfare and Wage-earning for Women in the Twentieth-Century United States,” Journal of Social History 29 (1995): 253–274Google Scholar, quote at 545; Rose, Nancy, Workfare or Fair Work: Women, Welfare, and Government Work Programs (New Brunswick, 1995), 73–75Google Scholar; Reese, Ellen, “The Politics of Motherhood: The Restriction of Poor Mothers' Welfare Rights in the United States, 1949–1960,” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State, and Society 8 (2001): 65–11.Google Scholar

69. Mittelstadt, Jennifer, “‘Dependency as a Problem to Be Solved’: Rehabilitation and the American Liberal Consensus on Welfare in the 1950s,”; Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State, and Society 8 (2001): 228–257.Google Scholar

70. Levenstein, Lisa, “From Innocent Children to Unwanted Migrants and Unwed Moms: Two Chapters in the Public Discourse on Welfare in the United States, 1960–1961,” Journal of Women's History 11 (2000): 10–33.Google Scholar

71. Feldstein, Ruth, Motherhood in Black and White: Race and Sex in American Liberalism, 1930–1965 (Ithaca, 2000), 9Google Scholar; Felicia Kornbluh, “The Rise and Fall of Welfare Rights: Gender, Law, and Poverty in Postwar America,” manuscript draft in author's possession.

72. Chappell, Marisa, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform (Philadelphia, forthcoming).Google Scholar

73. Parreñas, Rhacel Salazar, “Transgressing the Nation-State: The Partial Citizenship and “Imagined (Global) Community” of Migrant Filipina Domestic Workers,” Signs 26 (2001): 1129–1154;Google ScholarEhrenreich, Barbara and Hochschild, Arlie Russell, Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy (New York, 2002)Google Scholar; Hondagneu-Sotelo, Pierrette, Doméstica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring in the Shadow of Affluence (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2001)Google Scholar. See also Parreñas, , Servants of Globalization: Women, Migration, and Domestic Work (Stanford, 2001).Google Scholar

74. Richardson, Eileen H. and Turner, Bryan S., “Sexual, Intimate, or Reproductive Citizenship?” Citizenship Studies 5 (2001): 329–330, 333.Google Scholar

75. Reagan, Leslie, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867–1973 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1997)Google Scholar; the more popular, Solinger, Rickie, The Abortionist: A Woman Against the Law (New York, 1994)Google Scholar; Critchlow, Donald, Intended Consequences: Birth Control, Abortion, and the Federal Government in Modern America (New York, 1999).Google Scholar

76. Briggs, Laura, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2002).Google Scholar

77. Cott, Nancy F., Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge, 2000), 2.Google Scholar

78. Sonya Michel, “The Benefits of Race and Gender: Retirement in Postwar America,” unpublished work in progress, 2002, in possession of the author; Mink, Gwendolyn, “Violating Women: Rights Abuse in the Welfare Police State,” in Albelda, Randy and Withorn, Ann, Lost Ground: Welfare Reform, Poverty, and Beyond (Boston, 2002), 95–112Google Scholar. See also Quadagno, Jill, “Women's Access to Pensions and the Structure of Eligibility Rules: Systems of Production and Reproduction,” Sociological Quarterly 29 (1988): 541–558.Google Scholar

79. Canady, Margot, “Building a Straight State: Sexuality and Social Citizenship under the 1944 G.I. Bill,” Journal of American History 90 (2003): 235–257Google Scholar. A number of historians already stressed how gendered restrictions on military service and the inequalities of a Jim Crow army disadvantaged women and African American men. See Kerber, Linda, No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York, 1998), 221–302Google Scholar; Cohen, Lizabeth, A Consumer's Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York, 2003), 137–146, 166–73Google Scholar; and Onkst, David H., “‘First a Negro … Incidentally a Veteran’: Black World War II Veterans and the G.I. Bill of Rights in the Deep South, 1944–1948,“ Journal of Social History 31 (1998): 517–544Google Scholar. For the “lesbian menace“ during World War II, see Meyer, Leisa D., Creating GI Jane: Sexuality and Power in the Women's Army Corps During World War II (New York, 1996).Google Scholar

80. For example, D'Emilio, John, Turner, William B., and Vaid, Urvashi, Creating Change: Sexuality, Public Policy, and Civil Rights (New York, 2000)Google Scholar; Stein, Marc, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves: Lesbian and Gay Philadelphia, 1945–1972 (Chicago, 2000).Google Scholar

81. For a good summary, see Luibhéid, Eithne, Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border (Minneapolis, 2002).Google Scholar

82. Sapiro, Virginia, “Women, Citizenship, and Nationality: Immigration and Naturalization Policies in the United States,” Politics & Society 13 (1984): 1–26Google Scholar; Bredbenner, Candice Lewis, A Nationality of Her Own: Women, Marriage, and the Law of Citizenship (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1998)Google Scholar, Kerber, No Constitutional Right, 33–46.

83. Luibhéid, Entry Denied; Cott, Nancy F., “Marriage and Women's Citizenship in the United States, 1830–1934,” American Historical Review 103 (1998): 1440–1474Google Scholar; Lee, Erika, At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (Chapel Hill, 2003)Google Scholar; Ngai, Impossible Subjects, esp. 109–16 on Filipinos, 202–24 on Chinese, quote at 113.

84. Canaday, Margot, “‘Who Is a Homosexual?’ The Consolidation of Sexual Identities in Mid-Twentieth-Century Immigration Law,” Law and Social Inquiry 28 (2003): 351–386, quote at 354–55.Google Scholar

85. Luibhéid, Entry Denied, 77–101.

86. I am currently exploring this issue as part of a larger project on bodies on the job. But see Banks, Taunya Lovell, “The Black Side of the Mirror: The Black Body in the Workplace,” in Sister Circle: Black Women and Work, ed. Harley, Sharon and The Black Women and Work Collective (New Brunswick, 2002), 13–28Google Scholar; Hyde, Alan, Bodies of Law (Princeton, 1997), 125–130Google Scholar; Klare, Karl E., “Power/Dressing: Regulation of Employee Appearance,” 26 New England Law Review 1395 (1992).Google Scholar