Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T19:17:45.943Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Cenozoic gonyaulacacean dinoflagellate genera Operculodinium Wall, 1967 and Protoceratium Bergh, 1881 and their phylogenetic relationships

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 May 2016

Manuel Paez-Reyes  and
Martin J. Head
Manuel Paez-Reyes
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Brock University, 500 Glenridge Avenue, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, P.O. Box 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama,
Martin J. Head
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Brock University, 500 Glenridge Avenue, St. Catharines, Ontario L2S 3A1, Canada,
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

To clarify the systematic positions of the important gonyaulacacean genera Operculodinium Wall, 1967 emend. Matsuoka et al., 1997 and Protoceratium Bergh, 1881, we present in detail the tabulation of the Oligocene–Pleistocene, thermophilic, cyst-defined species Operculodinium bahamense Head in Head and Westphal, 1999 emend., and the extant, cosmopolitan, theca-defined species Protoceratium reticulatum (Claparède and Lachmann, 1859) Bütschli, 1885. Both species have a sexiform hyposomal tabulation, and L-type (Protoceratium reticulatum) or modified L-type (Operculodinium bahamense) ventral organization. Protoceratium reticulatum has dextral torsion of the hypotheca, requiring assignation of the genus to the subfamily Cribroperidinioideae Fensome et al., 1993, whereas Operculodinium bahamense has neutral torsion requiring assignation to the subfamily Leptodinioideae Fensome et al., 1993. The stratigraphic range of this subfamily is now extended upwards to the lower Pleistocene. Paradoxically, Protoceratium reticulatum produces a cyst whose morphology is circumscribed by the cyst-defined genus Operculodinium, either implying polyphyletic origins for this genus or that combinations of ventral organization and torsion used to subdivide the family Gonyaulacaceae cannot always be applied rigidly. In detail, Operculodinium bahamense is shown to have an unusual ventral tabulation in which the first apical plate contacts the apical pore complex but not the sulcus. The new term “episert” is proposed to describe this plate relationship, which appears to have evolved independently in several lineages of the suborder Gonyaulacineae.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Paleontology , Volume 87 , Issue 5 , September 2013 , pp. 786 - 803
Copyright
Copyright © The Paleontological Society 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Álvarez, G., Uribe, E., Díaz, R., Braun, M., Mariño, C., and Blanco, J. 2011. Bloom of the Yessotoxin producing dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum (Dinophyceae) in Northern Chile. Journal of Sea Research, 65:427–434.Google Scholar
Anselmetti, F. S., Eberli, G. P., and Zan-Dong, Ding. 2000. From the Great Bahama Bank into the Straits of Florida: a margin architecture controlled by sea level fluctuations and ocean currents. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 112:829–844.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balech, E. 1962. Tintinnoinea y Dinoflagellata del Pacifico según material de las expediciones Norpac y Downwind del Instituto Scripps de Oceanografía. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia” e Instituto Nacional de Investigación de las Ciencias Naturales, Zoológicas, 7 (1):1–253.Google Scholar
Balech, E. 1967. Dinoflagelados nuevos o interesantes del Golfo de México y Caribe. Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia” e Instituto Nacional de Investigación de las Ciencias Naturales, Hidrobiología, 2 (3):77–126.Google Scholar
Balech, E. 1988. Los dinoflagelados del Atlántico sudoccidental. Publicaciones Especiales Instituto Español de Oceanografía, 1, 310p.Google Scholar
Bergh, R. S. 1881. Bidrag til Cilioflagellaternes Naturhistorie. Forel⊘bige meddelelser. Dansk Naturhistoriskforening I Kjobenhavn, Videnskabelige Meddelelser, Series 4, 3:60–76.Google Scholar
Bleil, U. 1989. Magnetostratigraphy of Neogene and Quaternary sediment series from the Norwegian Sea: Ocean Drilling Program, Leg 104, p. 829–901. InEldholm, O., Thiede, J., Taylor, E., et al., Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 104, College Station, Texas.Google Scholar
Bujak, J. P. 1980. Dinoflagellate cysts and acritarchs from the Eocene Barton Beds of southern England, p. 36–91. InBujak, J. P., Downie, C., Eaton, G. L., and Williams, G. L., Dinoflagellate cysts and acritarchs from the Eocene of southern England. The Palaeontological Association, Special Papers in Palaeontology, 24.Google Scholar
Bütschli, O. 1885. Erster Band. Protozoa, p. 865–1088. InDr. H. G. Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reiches, wissenschaftlich dargestellt in Wort und Bild. C. F. Winter'sche Verlagshandlung, Leipzig and Heidelberg.Google Scholar
Carbonell-Moore, M. C. 1996a. On Spiraulax jolliffei (Murray et Whitting) Kofoid and Gonyaulax fusiformis Graham (Dinophyceae). Botanica Marina, 39:347–370.Google Scholar
Carbonell-Moore, M. C. 1996b. Ceratocorys anacantha, sp. nov., a new member of the family Ceratocoryaceae Lindemann (Dinophyceae). Botanica Marina, 39:1–10.Google Scholar
Claparède, É. and Lachmann, J. 1859. Études sur les infusoires et les rhizopodes. Institut national génevois, Mémoires, 6 (Mémoire 1):261–482, pl.14–24. (Imprinted 1858)Google Scholar
Dale, B. 1996. Dinoflagellate cyst ecology: modelling and geological applications, p. 1249–1275. InJansonius, J. and McGregor, D. C.(eds.), Palynology: Principles and Applications. Vol. 3. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, Texas.Google Scholar
Davey, R. J., Downie, C., Sarjeant, W. A. S., and Williams, G. L. 1966. VII. Fossil dinoflagellate cysts attributed to Baltisphaeridium. InDavey, R. J., Downie, C., Sarjeant, W. A. S., and Williams, G. L., Studies on Mesozoic and Cainozoic dinoflagellate cysts. British Museum (Natural History) Geology, Bulletin, Supplement 3, p. 157–175.Google Scholar
Deflandre, G. and Cookson, I. C. 1955. Fossil microplankton from Australian late Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 6:242–313.Google Scholar
de Verteuil, L. and Norris, G. 1996. Miocene dinoflagellate stratigraphy and systematics of Maryland and Virginia. Micropaleontology, 42, supplement, p. 1–172.Google Scholar
Diesing, C. M. 1866. Revision der Prothelminthen, Abtheilung: Mastigophoren. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien, Sitzungsberichte, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Klasse, 52 (8):287–401.Google Scholar
Dodge, J. D. 1982. Marine Dinoflagellates of the British Isles. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London, 303p.Google Scholar
Dodge, J. D. 1989. Some revisions of the family Gonyaulacaceae (Dinophyceae) based on a scanning electron microscope study. Botanica Marina, 32:275–298.Google Scholar
Eberli, G. P. and Ginsburg, R. N. 1987. Segmentation and coalescence of Cenozoic carbonate platforms, northwestern Great Bahama Bank. Geology, 15:75–79.Google Scholar
Edwards, L. E. and Andrle, V. A. S. 1992. Distribution of selected dinoflagellate cysts in modern marine sediments, p. 259–288. InHead, M. J. and Wrenn, J. H.(eds.), Neogene and Quaternary Dinoflagellate Cysts and Acritarchs. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, Texas.Google Scholar
Evitt, W. R. 1985. Sporopollenin Dinoflagellate Cysts: Their Morphology and Interpretation. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, Texas, p.i–xv, 1–333.Google Scholar
Fensome, R. A., Taylor, F. J. R., Norris, G., Sarjeant, W. A. S., Wharton, D. I., and Williams, G. L. 1993. A classification of living and fossil dinoflagellates. Micropaleontology, Special Publication Number 7, 351p.Google Scholar
Fensome, R. A., Riding, J. B., and Taylor, F. J. R. 1996. Dinoflagellates, p. 107–169. InJansonius, J. and McGregor, D. C.(eds.), Palynology: Principles and Applications. Vol. 1. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, Texas.Google Scholar
Fensome, R. A., MacRae, R. A., and Williams, G. L. 2008. DINOFLAJ2, Version 1. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists, Data Series no. 1; http://dinoflaj.smu.ca/wiki/Main_PageGoogle Scholar
Gibbard, P. L. and Head, M. J. 2010. The newly-ratified definition of the Quaternary System/Period and redefinition of the Pleistocene Series/Epoch, and comparison of proposals advanced prior to formal ratification. Episodes, 33:152–158.Google Scholar
Gibbard, P. L., Head, M. J., Walker, M. J. C. and The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy. 2010. Formal ratification of the Quaternary System/Period and the Pleistocene Series/Epoch with a base at 2.58 Ma. Journal of Quaternary Science, 25:96–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, H. W. 1942. Studies in the morphology, taxonomy and ecology of the Peridiniales. InScientific Results of Cruise VII of the Carnegie during 1928–1929 under command of Captain J. P. Ault. Biology–III. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 542, vii+129p.Google Scholar
Gómez, F., López-García, P., Dolan, J. R., and Moreira, D. 2012. Molecular phylogeny of the marine dinoflagellate genus Heterodinium (Dinophyceae). European Journal of Phycology, 47:95–104.Google Scholar
Hansen, G., Moestrup, Ø., and Roberts, K. R. 1997. Light and electron microscopical observations on Protoceratium reticulatum (Dinophyceae). Archiv für Protistenkunde, 147 (1996/97):381–391.Google Scholar
Head, M. J. 1994. Morphology and paleoenvironmental significance of the Cenozoic dinoflagellate genera Tectatodinium and Habibacysta. Micropaleontology, 40:289–321.Google Scholar
Head, M. J. 1996a. Chapter 30. Modern dinoflagellate cysts and their biological affinities, p. 1197–1248. InJansonius, J. and McGregor, D. C.(eds.), Palynology: Principles and Applications. Vol. 3. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, Texas.Google Scholar
Head, M. J. 1996b. Late Cenozoic dinoflagellates from the Royal Society borehole at Ludham, Norfolk, eastern England. Journal of Paleontology, 70:543–570.Google Scholar
Head, M. J. 2007. Last Interglacial (Eemian) hydrographic conditions in the southwestern Baltic Sea based on dinoflagellate cysts from Ristinge Klint, Denmark. Geological Magazine, 144:987–1013.Google Scholar
Head, M. J. and Wrenn, J. H. 1992. A forum on Neogene–Quaternary dinoflagellate cysts: The edited transcript of a round table discussion held at the Second Workshop on Neogene Dinoflagellates, p. 1–31. InHead, M. J. and Wrenn, J. H.(eds.), Neogene and Quaternary Dinoflagellate Cysts and Acritarchs. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, Texas.Google Scholar
Head, M. J. and Westphal, H. 1999. Palynology and paleoenvironments of a Pliocene carbonate platform: The Clino Core, Bahamas. Journal of Paleontology, 73:1–25.Google Scholar
Helenes, J. 1986. Some variations in the paratabulation of gonyaulacoid dinoflagellates. Palynology, 10:73–110.Google Scholar
Helenes, J. 2000. Exochosphaeridium alisitosense n. sp., a new gonyaulacoid dinoflagellate from the Albian of Baja California, Mexico. Micropaleontology, 46:135–142.Google Scholar
Helenes, J. and Lucas-Clark, J. 1997. Morphological variations among species of the fossil dinoflagellate genus Gonyaulacysta. Palynology, 21:173–196.Google Scholar
Hernández-Becerril, D. U., Rodríguez-Palacio, C., and Lozano-Ramírez, C. 2010. Morphology of two bloom-forming or potentially toxic marine dinoflagellates from the Mexican Pacific, Heterocapsa pygmaea and Protoceratium reticulatum (Dinophyceae). Cryptogamie Algologie, 31:245–254.Google Scholar
Hilgen, F. J., Lourens, L. J., and Van Dam, J. A. 2012. The Neogene Period, p. 923–978. InGradstein, F. M., Ogg, J. G., Schmitz, M. D., and Ogg, G. M.(eds.), The Geologic Time Scale 2012; Vol. 2. Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Hoppenrath, M., Elbrächter, M., and Drebes, G. 2009. Marine phytoplankton. Selected microphytoplankton species from the North Sea around Helgoland and Sylt. Kleine Senckenberg-Reihe, Band 49, 264p.Google Scholar
Howard, M. D. A., Smith, G. J., and Kudela, R. M. 2009. Phylogenetic relationships of yessotoxin-producing dinoflagellates based on the large subunit and internal transcribed spacer ribosomal DNA domains. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 75:54–63.Google Scholar
Kim, K.-Y., Kim, Y.-S., Hwang, C.-H., Lee, C.-K., Lim, W.-A., and Kim, C.-H. 2006. Phylogenetic analysis of dinoflagellate Gonyaulax polygramma Stein responsible for harmful algal blooms based on the partial LSU rDNA sequence data. Algae, 21:283–286.Google Scholar
Klement, K. W. 1960. Dinoflagellaten und Histrichosphaerideen aus dem unteren und mittleren Malm Südwestdeutschlands. Palaeontographica, Abteilung A, 114 (1–4):1–104.Google Scholar
Kofoid, C. A. 1906. Dinoflagellata of the San Diego region, I: On Heterodinium, a new genus of the Peridinidae. University of California Publications in Zoology, 2 (8):341–368, pl. 17–19.Google Scholar
Kofoid, C. A. 1907. IX. New species of dinoflagellates. Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Bulletin, 50:161–207, pl. 1–18.Google Scholar
Kofoid, C. A. 1911a. Dinoflagellata of the San Diego region, IV. The genus Gonyaulax, with notes on its skeletal morphology and a discussion of its generic and specific characters. University of California Publications in Zoology, 8 (4):187–286, pl. 9–17.Google Scholar
Kofoid, C. A. 1911b. Dinoflagellata of the San Diego region, V. On Spirulax, a new genus of the Peridinidae. University of California Publications in Zoology, 8 (6):295–300, pl. 19.Google Scholar
Kofoid, C. A. and Adamson, A. M. 1933. The Dinoflagellata: the family Heterodiniidae of the Peridinioidae. Harvard University, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Memoirs, 54 (1):1–136, 22 pl.Google Scholar
Kofoid, C. A. and Michener, J. R. 1911. New genera and species of dinoflagellates. Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Bulletin, 54 (7):267–302.Google Scholar
Kudela, R. M., Howard, M. D. A., Jenkins, B. D., Miller, P. E., and Smith, G. J. 2010. Using the molecular toolbox to compare harmful algal blooms in upwelling systems. Progress in Oceanography, 85:108–121.Google Scholar
Lebour, M. V. 1925. The Dinoflagellates of Northern Seas. Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth , p.i–vi, 1–250.Google Scholar
Lindemann, E. 1928. Abteilung Peridineae (Dinoflagellatae), p. 3–104. InEngler, A. and Prantl, K.(eds.), Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien nebst ihren Gattungen und wichtigeren Arten insbesondere den Nutzpflanzen. Zweite stark vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage herausgegeben von A. Engler. 2 Band.Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig.Google Scholar
Louwye, S. and De Schepper, S. 2010. The Miocene–Pliocene hiatus in the southern North Sea Basin (northern Belgium) revealed by dinoflagellate cysts. Geological Magazine, 147:760–776.Google Scholar
Manum, S. B., Boulter, M. C., Gunnarsdottir, H., Rangnes, K., and Scholze, A. 1989. Eocene to Miocene palynology of the Norwegian Sea (ODP Leg 104), p. 611–662. InEldholm, O., Thiede, J., Taylor, E., et al., Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 104, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, Texas.Google Scholar
Marret, F. and Kim, S. Y. 2009. Operculodinium aguinawense sp. nov., a dinoflagellate cyst from the Late Pleistocene and recent sediments of the east equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Palynology, 33:125–139.Google Scholar
Marret, F., Leroy, S., Chalié, F., and Gasse, F. 2004. New organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts from recent sediments of Central Asian seas. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 129:1–20.Google Scholar
Matsuoka, K. 1983. Late Cenozoic dinoflagellates and acritarchs in the Niigata District, central Japan. Palaeontographica, Abteilung B, 187:89–154.Google Scholar
Matsuoka, K. 1990. Protoceratium reticulatum (Claparède et Lachmann) Bütschli, p. 110–111. InFukuyo, Y., Takano, H., Chihara, M., and Matsuoka, K.(eds.), Red Tide Organisms in Japan–An Illustrated Taxonomic Guide. Uchida Rokakuho.Google Scholar
Matsuoka, K., McMinn, A., and Wrenn, J. H. 1997. Restudy of the holotype of Operculodinium centrocarpum (Deflandre & Cookson) Wall (Dinophyceae) from the Miocene of Australia, and the taxonomy of related species. Palynology, 21:19–33.Google Scholar
Matsuoka, K., Pholpunthin, P., and Fukuyo, Y. 1998. Is the archeopyle of Tuberculodinium vancampoae (Rossignol) (Gonyaulacales, Dinophyceae) on the hypocyst? Paleontological Research, 2:183–192.Google Scholar
Mertens, K. N., Dale, B., Ellegaard, M., Jansson, I.-M., Godhe, A., Kremp, A., and Louwye, S. 2011. Process length variation in cysts of the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum, from surface sediments of the Baltic–Kattegat–Skagerrak estuarine system: a regional salinity proxy. Boreas, 40:242–255.Google Scholar
Murray, G. and Whitting, F. 1899. New Peridiniaceae from the Atlantic. Linnean Society of London, Transactions, Botany, series 2, 5 (9):321–342.Google Scholar
Neale, J. W. and Sarjeant, W. A. S. 1962. Microplankton from the Speeton Clay of Yorkshire. Geological Magazine, 99:439–458.Google Scholar
Paulsen, O. 1907. The Peridiniales of the Danish waters. Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Havunders⊘gelser, Serie Plankton, 1 (5):1–26.Google Scholar
Pascher, A. 1914. Über Flagellaten und Algen. Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellshaft, 36:136–160.Google Scholar
Pearce, M. A. 2010. New organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts from the Cenomanian to Maastrichtian of the Trunch borehole, UK. Journal of Micropalaeontology, 29:51–72.Google Scholar
Raffi, I., Backman, J., Fornaciari, E., Pälike, H., Rio, D., Lourens, L., and Hilgen, F. 2006. A review of calcareous nannofossil astrobiochronology encompassing the past 25 million years. Quaternary Science Reviews, 25:3113–3137.Google Scholar
Reinecke, P. 1967. Gonyaulax grindleyi sp. nov.: a dinoflagellate causing a red tide at Elands Bay, Cape Province, in December 1966. Journal of South African Botany, 33:157–160.Google Scholar
Riccardi, M., Guerrini, F., Roncarati, F., Milandri, A., Cangini, M., Pigozzi, S., Riccardi, E., Ceredi, A., Ciminiello, P., Dell'Aversano, C., Fattorusso, E., Forino, M., Tartaglione, L., and Pistocchi, R. 2009. Gonyaulax spinifera from the Adriatic Sea: toxin production and phylogenetic analysis. Harmful Algae, 8:279–290.Google Scholar
Rochon, A., Mudie, P. J., Aksu, A. E., and Gillespie, H. 2002. Pterocysta gen. nov.: a new dinoflagellate cyst from Pleistocene glacial-stage sediments of the Black and Marmara seas. Palynology, 26:95–105.Google Scholar
Rochon, A., de Vernal, A., Turon, J.-L., Matthiessen, J., and Head, M. J. 1999. Distribution of recent dinoflagellate cysts in surface sediments from the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas in relation to sea-surface parameters. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists, Contributions Series, 35:1–152.Google Scholar
Röder, K., Hantzsche, F. M., Gebühr, C., Miene, C., Helbig, T., Krock, B., Hoppenrath, M., Luckas, B., and Gerdts, G. 2012. Effects of salinity, temperature and nutrients on growth, cellular characteristics and yessotoxin production of Protoceratium reticulatum. Harmful Algae, 15:59–70.Google Scholar
Rossignol, M. 1962. Analyse pollinique de sédiments marins quaternaires en Israël, II: Sédiments pléistocènes. Pollen et Spores, 4:121–148.Google Scholar
Saldarriaga, J. F., Taylor, F. J. R., Cavalier-Smith, T., Menden-Deuer, S., and Keeling, P. J. 2004. Molecular data and the evolutionary history of dinoflagellates. European Journal of Protistology, 40:85–111.Google Scholar
Schiller, J. 1936. Dinoflagellatae (Peridineae) in monographischer Behandlung. 2. Teil, Lieferung 3. In Kolkwitz, R., Zehnter Band. Flagellatae. InDr. L. Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Leipzig, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, p. 321–480.Google Scholar
Schütt, F. 1895. Die Peridineen der Plankton-Expedition. InErgebnisse der Plankton-Expedition der Humboldt-Stiftung, Bd IV (M. a. A.), Lipsius and Teicher, Kiel:1–170, pl.1–27.Google Scholar
Shipboard Scientific Party. 1997. Leg synthesis: sea-level changes and fluid flow on the Great Bahama Bank slope, p. 13–22. InEberli, G. P., Swart, P. K., Malone, M. J., et al., Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports, 166, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, Texas.Google Scholar
Steidinger, K. A. and Tangen, K. 1996. Chapter 3: Dinoflagellates, p. 387–584. InTomas, C. R.(ed.), Identifying Marine Diatoms and Dinoflagellates. Academic Press Inc., San Diego, California.Google Scholar
Stein, F. R. von. 1883. Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere nach eigenen Forschungen in systematischer Reihenfolge bearbeitet. III Abteilung. II. Hälfte. Die Naturgeschichte der arthrodelen Flagellaten. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig, 30 p., 25 pl.Google Scholar
Taylor, F. J. R. 1976. Dinoflagellates from the International Indian Ocean Expedition: A report on material collected by the R.V. “Anton Bruun” 1963–1964. Bibliotheca Botanica, 132, p. 1–234 and 46 pl.Google Scholar
Taylor, F. J. R. 1980. On dinoflagellate evolution. BioSystems, 13:65–108.Google Scholar
von Stosch, H. A. 1969. Dinoflagellaten aus der Nordsee I. Über Cachonina niei Loeblich (1968), Gonyaulax grindleyi Reinecke (1967) und eine Methode zur Darstellung von Peridineenpanzern. Helgoländer wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen, 19:558–568.Google Scholar
Wade, B. S., Pearson, P. N., Berggren, W. A., and Pälike, H. 2011. Review and revision of Cenozoic tropical planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy and calibration to the geomagnetic polarity and astronomical time scale. Earth-Science Reviews, 104:111–142.Google Scholar
Wailes, G. H. 1939. Canadian Pacific Fauna. 1. Protozoa, 1e. Mastigophora. The University of Toronto Press for the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 45p.Google Scholar
Wall, D. 1967. Fossil microplankton in deep-sea cores from the Caribbean Sea. Palaeontology, 10:95–123.Google Scholar
Wall, D. and Dale, B. 1966. “Living fossils” in western Atlantic plankton. Nature, 211:1025–1026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wall, D. and Dale, B. 1968. Modern dinoflagellate cysts and evolution of the Peridiniales. Micropaleontology, 14:265–304.Google Scholar
Wall, D., Dale, B., and Harada, K. 1973. Descriptions of new fossil dinoflagellates from the Late Quaternary of the Black Sea. Micropaleontology, 19:18–31.Google Scholar
Warny, S. A. and Wrenn, J. H. 1997. New species of dinoflagellate cysts from the Bou Regreg core: a Miocene–Pliocene boundary section on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 96:281–304.Google Scholar
Woloszynska, J. 1929. Dinoflagellatae der polnischen Ostsee sowie der an Piasnica gelegenen Sümpfe. Archives d'Hydrobiologie et d'Ichthyologie, 3:250–278, pl. 2–15 (Imprinted 1928)Google Scholar
Wright, J. D. and Kroon, D. 2000. Planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy of Leg 166, p. 3–12. InSwart, P. K., Eberli, G. P., Malone, M. J., and Sarg, J. F.(eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 166, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, Texas.Google Scholar
Zonneveld, K. A. F., Marret, F., Versteegh, G. J. M., Bogus, K., Bonnet, S., Bouimetarhan, I., Crouch, E., de Vernal, A., Elshanawany, R., Edwards, L., Esper, O., Forke, S., Gr⊘sfjeld, K., Henry, M., Holzwarth, U., Kielt, J.-F., Kim, S.-Y., Ladouceur, S., Ledu, D., Liang, Chen, Limoges, A., Londeix, L., Lu, S.-H., Mahmoud, M. S., Marino, G., Matsouka [sic], K., Matthiessen, J., Mildenhal [sic], D. C., Mudie, P., Neil, H. L., Pospelova, V., Qi, Yuzao,Radi, T., Richerol, T., Rochon, A., Sangiorgi, F., Solignac, S., Turon, J.-L., Verleye, T., Yan, Wang, Zhaohui, Wang, and Young, M. 2013. Atlas of modern dinoflagellate cyst distribution based on 2405 datapoints. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 191:1–197.Google Scholar