Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T22:21:06.541Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Eocene apex of panorpoid scorpionfly family diversity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 July 2015

S. Bruce Archibald ,
Rolf W. Mathewes  and
David R. Greenwood
S. Bruce Archibald
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada, ; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, MA, USA Royal BC Museum, Victoria, BC, Canada
Rolf W. Mathewes
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada, ;
David R. Greenwood
Affiliation:
Biology Dept., Brandon University, 270-18th Street, Brandon, MB, Canada,
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The scorpionfly (Mecoptera) superfamily Panorpoidea underwent an Eocene radiation, replacing the extinct Mesozoic orthophlebiid grade and reaching its greatest family-level diversity: Panorpidae, Panorpodidae, Austropanorpidae, Holcorpidae, Dinopanorpidae, and a new family proposed here, the Eorpidae. Only the Panorpidae and Panorpodidae survived the Eocene and persist to the present day. This cluster of family extinctions is exceptional within Cenozoic insects. The Eorpidae includes at least one new genus and three new species described here from four localities of the early Eocene Okanagan Highlands of British Columbia, Canada, and Washington, U.S.A.: Eorpa ypsipeda n. gen. n. sp. (McAbee and possibly Falkland, BC, Canada; and Republic, WA, U.S.A.), Eorpa elverumi n. gen. n. sp. (Republic), and Eorpa jurgeni n. gen. n. sp. (Quilchena, BC). Some of the other fragmentary and poorly preserved specimens might represent further new species. We propose that the apex of Panorpoid family diversity ended by pressures from post-Eocene icehouse world climatic stress and the rise to ecological dominance of ants, some of which would have provided strong competition in scavenging for dead arthropods.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Paleontology , Volume 87 , Issue 4 , July 2013 , pp. 677 - 695
Copyright
Copyright © The Paleontological Society 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Archibald, S. B. 2005. New Dinopanorpidae (Insecta: Mecoptera) from the Eocene Okanagan Highlands (British Columbia, Canada; Washington State, U.S.A.). Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 42:119–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archibald, S. B. 2009. New Cimbrophlebiidae (Insecta: Mecoptera) from the early Eocene McAbee, British Columbia, Canada and Republic, Washington, U.S.A. Zootaxa, 2249:51–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archibald, S. B. 2010. A revision of the scorpionfly family Holcorpidae (Mecoptera), with description of a new species from early Eocene McAbee, British Columbia, Canada. Annales de la Société Entomologique de France, 46:173–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archibald, S. B., Greenwood, D. R., and Mathewes, R. W. 2013. Seasonality, montane beta diversity, and Eocene insects: testing Janzen's dispersal hypothesis in an equable world. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 371:1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archibald, S. B., Greenwood, D. R., Smith, R. Y., Mathewes, R. W., and Basinger, J. F. 2011a. Early Eocene lagerstätten of the Okanagan Highlands (British Columbia and Washington State). Geoscience Canada, 38:145–154.Google Scholar
Archibald, S. B., Johnson, K. R., Mathewes, R. W., and Greenwood, D. R. 2011b. Intercontinental dispersal of giant thermophilic ants across the Arctic during early Eocene hyperthermals. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 278:3679–3686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archibald, S. B. and Mathewes, R. W. 2000. Early Eocene insects from Quilchena, British Columbia, and their paleoclimatic implications. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 78:1441–1462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archibald, S. B., Bossert, W. H., Greenwood, D. R., and Farrell, B. D. 2010. Seasonality, the latitudinal gradient of diversity, and Eocene insects. Paleobiology, 36:374–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archibald, S. B., Rasnitsyn, A. P., and Akhmetiev, M. A. 2005. The ecology and distribution of Cenozoic Eomeropidae (Mecoptera), and a new species of Eomerope Cockerell from the Early Eocene McAbee locality, British Columbia, Canada. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 98:503–514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belayeva, N. V., Blagoderov, V. A., Dmitriev, K. Y., Gorokhov, V. D., Ivanov, V. D., Kluge, N. U., Kozlov, M. V., Lukashevich, E. D., Mostovski, V. G., Novokshonov, V. G., Ponomarenko, A. G., Popov, Y. A., Pritykina, L. N., Rasnitsyn, A. P., Shcherbakov, D. E., Sinitshenkova, N. D., Storozhenko, S. Y., Sukatsheva, I. D., Vishniakova, V. N., Vršanský, P., and Zherikhin, V. V. 2002. Rasnitsyn, A. P. and Quicke, D. L. J.(eds.), History of Insects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 517p.Google Scholar
Blagoderov, V. A., Lukashevich, E. D., and Mostovski, M. B. 2002. Order Diptera Linné, 1758. The true flies, p. 227–240. InRasnitsyn, A. P. and Quicke, D. L. J.(eds.), History of Insects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 517 p.Google Scholar
Byers, G. W. 1965. The Mecoptera of Indo-China. Pacific Insects, 7:705–748.Google Scholar
Byers, G. W. 1976. A New Appalachian Brachypanorpa (Mecoptera: Panorpodidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 49:433–440.Google Scholar
Byers, G. W. 1988. Geographic affinities of the North American Mecoptera. Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada, 120, Supplement 144, p. 25–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byers, G. W. 1990. Brachypanorpa sacajawea n. sp. (Mecoptera: Panorpodidae) from the Rocky Mountains. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 63:211–217.Google Scholar
Byers, G. W. 1999. Thirteen new Panorpidae (Mecoptera) from northern Burma. Entomological Scandinavia, 30:197–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byers, G. W. and Thornhill, R. 1983. Biology of the Mecoptera. Annual Review of Entomology, 28:203–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byers, G. W. and Penny, N. D. 1979. A check-list of the Mecoptera of the world. Acta Amazonica, 9:365–388.Google Scholar
Cai, L. J., Huang, P. Y., and Hua, B. Z. 2008. Sinopanorpa, a new genus of Panorpidae (Mecoptera) from the Oriental China with descriptions of two new species. Zootaxa, 1941:43–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, F. M. 1931. Affinities of Holcorpa maculosa Scudder and other Tertiary Mecoptera, with descriptions of new genera. Journal of the New York Entomological Society, 39:405–414.Google Scholar
Carpenter, F. M. 1954. The Baltic Amber Mecoptera. Psyche, 61:31–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, F. M. 1992. Superclass Hexapoda, p. 1–655InKaesler, R. L.(ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part R, Arthropoda 4(3–4), Geological Society of America and University of Kansas press, Lawrence.Google Scholar
Carroll, C. R. and Janzen, D. H. 1973. Ecology of foraging by ants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4:231–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandra, K. 2004. Check-list of Mecoptera from India. Records of the Zoological Survey of India, 102:73–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chau, H. C.-S. and Byers, G. W. 1978. The Mecoptera of Indonesia: genus Neopanorpa. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 51:341–405.Google Scholar
Cockfield, W. E. 1948. Geology and mineral deposits of Nicola map-area, British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada Memoir, 249:1–164.Google Scholar
Currano, E. D., Wilf, P., Wing, S. L., Labandeira, C. C., Lovelock, E. C., and Royer, D. L. 2008. Sharply increased insect herbivory during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., 105:1960–1964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dlussky, G. M. and Rasnitsyn, A. P. 2003. (2002). Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) of Formation Green River and some other Middle Eocene deposits of North America. Russian Entomological Journal, 11:411–436.Google Scholar
Dmitriev, V. Y. and Ponomarenko, A. G. 2002. Dynamics of insect taxonomic diversity, p. 325–330. InRasnitsyn, A. P. and Quicke, D. L. J.(eds.), History of Insects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 517 p.Google Scholar
Eldrett, J. S., Greenwood, D. R., Harding, I. C., and Huber, M. 2009. Increased seasonality through the Eocene to Oligocene transition in northern high latitudes. Nature, 459:969–974.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evanoff, E., McIntosh, W. C., and Murphey, P. C. 2001. Stratigraphic summary and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of the Florissant Formation, Colorado, p. 1–16. InEvanoff, E., Gregory-Wodzicki, K. and Johnson, K.(eds.), Fossil Flora and Stratigraphy of the Florissant Formation, Colorado. Proceedings of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, series 4(1). Denver Museum of Nature and Science, Denver, Colorado.Google Scholar
Farrell, B. D. 1998. “Inordinate fondness” explained: why are there so many beetles? Science, 281:555–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gradstein, F. M., Ogg, J. G., Schmitz, M. D., and Ogg, G. M. 2012. The geologic time scale 2012, Vols. 1 and 2. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1144p.Google Scholar
Greenwood, D. R. and Christophel, D. C. 2005. The origins and Tertiary history of Australian “Tropical” rainforests, p. 336–373. InBermingham, E., Dick, C. and Moritz, C.(eds.), Tropical Rainforests: Past, Present, and Future. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Greenwood, D. R., Archibald, S. B., Mathewes, R. W., and Moss, P. T. 2005. Fossil biotas from the Okanagan Highlands, southern British Columbia and northern Washington State: climates and ecosystems across an Eocene landscape. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 42:167–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimaldi, D. and Engel, M. S. 2005. Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge University Press, New York, 755p.Google Scholar
Hong, Y.-C. and Zhang, Z.-J. 2007. Reclassification of fossil Orthophlebiidae (Insecta: Mecoptera). Entomotaxonomia, 29:26–36.Google Scholar
International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature. 1999. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, 4th edition. Online, http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/.Google Scholar
Jarzembowski, E. A. and Ross, A. J. 1996. Insect and origination in the Phanerozoic. Geological Society of London, Special Publications, 102:65–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kevan, D. K. McE. and Wighton, D. C. 1981. Paleocene orthopteroids from south-central Alberta, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 18:1824–1837.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krzeminski, W. and Soszynska-Maj, A. 2012. A new genus and species of scorpionfly (Mecoptera) from Baltic amber, with an unusually developed postnotal organ. Systematic Entomology, 37:223–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labandeira, C. C. 1994. A compendium of fossil insect families. Milwaukee Public Museum Contributions in Biology and Geology, 88:1–71.Google Scholar
Labandeira, C. C. 2002. Paleobiology of middle Eocene plant-insect associations from the Pacific Northwest: a preliminary report. Rocky Mountain Geology, 37:31–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labandeira, C. C., Johnson, K. R., and Wilf, P. 2002. Impact of the terminal Cretaceous event on plant–insect associations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., 99:2061–2066.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Labandeira, C. C. 2005. The fossil record of insect extinction: new approaches and future directions. American Entomologist, 51:14–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labandeira, C. C. and Sepkoski, J. J. Jr. 1993. Insect diversity in the fossil record. Science, 261:310–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Latreille, P. A. 1805. Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière des Crustacés et des Insects, 13:1–432.Google Scholar
Lewis, S. E. 1992. Insects of the Klondike Mountain Formation, of Republic, Washington. Washington Geology, 20:15–19.Google Scholar
Lewis, S. E. and Wehr, W. C. 1993. Fossil mayflies from Republic, Washington. Washington Geology, 21:35–37.Google Scholar
Leiftnick, M. A. 1936. Studies in Oriental Mecoptera. I The genus Leptopanorpa in Malaysia. Treubia Buitenzorg, 15:271–320.Google Scholar
Ma, N. and Hua, B. Z. 2011. Furcatopanorpa, a new genus of Panorpidae (Mecoptera) from China. Journal of Natural History, 45:2251–2261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Makarkin, V. N. 1998. New Tertiary Neuroptera (Insecta) from the Russian Far East. Tertiary Research, 18:77–83.Google Scholar
Manchester, S. R. 2001. Update on the megafossil flora of Florissant, Colorado p. 137–162. InEvanoff, E., Gregory-Wodzicki, K. and Johnson, K.(eds.), Fossil Flora and Stratigraphy of the Florissant Formation, Colorado. Proceedings of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, series 4(1). Denver Museum of Nature and Science, Denver, Colorado.Google Scholar
Moss, P. T., Greenwood, D. R., and Archibald, S. B. 2005. Regional and local vegetation community dynamics of the Eocene Okanagan Highlands (British Columbia–Washington State) from palynology. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 42:187–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nel, A., Petrulevičius, J. F., Gentilini, G, and Martínez-Delclòs, X. 2005. Phylogenetic analysis of the Cenozoic family Sieblosiidae (Insecta: Odonata), with description of new taxa from Russia, Italy and France. Geobios, 38:219–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Novokshonov, V. G. 2002. Order Panorpida Latreille, 1802, p. 194–199. InHistory of Insects. Rasnitsyn, A. P. and Quicke, D. L. J.(eds.), Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 517p.Google Scholar
Ohm, P. 1961. Beziehungen zwischen Körpergröße und Flügeladerung bei Panorpa (Mecoptera). Zoologischer Anzeiger, 166:1–8.Google Scholar
Otofuji, Y.-I., Matsuda, T., Itaya, T., Shibata, T., Matsumoto, M., Yamamoto, T., Morimoto, C., Kulinich, R. G., Zimin, P. S., Matunin, A. P., Sakhno, V. G., and Kimura, K. 1995. Late Cretaceous to early Paleogene paleomagnetic results from Sikhote Alin, far eastern Russia: implications for deformation of East Asia. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 130:95–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Packard, A. S. 1886. A new arrangement of the orders of insects. The American Naturalist, 20:808.Google Scholar
Palmer, C. M. 2010. Diversity of feeding strategies in adult Mecoptera. Terrestrial Arthropod Reviews, 3:111–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penhallow, D. P. 1908. Report on Tertiary plants of British Columbia, Canada Department of Mines, Geological Survey Branch, No. 1013, 167p.Google Scholar
Penny, N. D. 1975. Evolution of the extant Mecoptera. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 48:331–348.Google Scholar
Penny, N. D. and Byers, G. W. 1979. A check-list of the Mecoptera of the world. Acta Amazonica, 9:365–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penny, N. D. 2011. World checklist of extant Mecoptera species, (latest revision). http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/entomology/Entomology_Resources/mecoptera/index.htmGoogle Scholar
Perkovsky, E. E., Rasnitsyn, A. P.Vlaskin, A. P., and Taraschuk, M. V. 2007. A comparative analysis of the Baltic and Rovno amber arthropod faunas: representative samples. African Invertebrates, 48:229–245.Google Scholar
Petrulevičius, J. F. 2009. A Panorpoid (Insecta: Mecoptera) from the lower Eocene of Patagonia. Argentina Journal of Paleontology, 83:994–997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrulevicius, J. F. and Nel, A. 2002. New palaeomacromiid dragonflies from the upper Paleocene of Argentina. Palaeontology, 45:751–758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popov, V. K. and Grebennikov, A. V. 2001. New data on the age of effusives from the Bogopol Formation in Primorye. Tikhookeanskaya Geologiya, 2001 (3):47–54. (In Russian)Google Scholar
Rasnitsyn, A. P. 2002a. Cohors Scarabaeiformes Laicharting, 1781. The Holometabolans, p. 157–164. InRasnitsyn, A. P. and Quicke, D. L. J.(eds.), History of Insects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 517 p.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rasnitsyn, A. P. 2002b. Superorder Vespidea Laicharting, 1781. Order Hymenoptera Linné, 1758, p. 242–254. InRasnitsyn, A. P. and Quicke, D. L. J.(eds.), History of Insects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 517 p.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ren, D., Labandeira, C. C., Santiago-Blay, J. A., Rasnitsyn, A., Shih, C., Bashkuev, A., Logan, M. A. V., Hotton, C. L., and Dilcher, D. 2009. A probable pollination mode before angiosperms: Eurasian, long-proboscid scorpionflies. Science, 326:840–847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riek, E. F. 1952. The fossil insects of the Tertiary Redbank series. Part I: an outline of the fossil assemblage with descriptions of the fossil insects of the orders Mecoptera and Neuroptera. Fossil insects from the Tertiary sediments at Dinmore, Queensland. University of Queensland Papers, 4(new series):1–23.Google Scholar
Riek, E. F. 1967. Further evidence of Panorpidae in the Australian Tertiary (Insecta: Mecoptera). Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 6:71–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rust, M. and Byers, G. W. 1976. The Mecoptera of India and adjacent regions. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 51:19–90.Google Scholar
Shcherbakov, D. E. and Popov, Y. A. 2002. Superorder Cimicidea Laicharting, 1781, Order Hemiptera Linné, 1758. The bugs, cicadas, plantlice, scale insects, etc., p. 143–157. InRasnitsyn, A. P. and Quicke, D. L. J.(eds.), History of Insects. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 517 p.Google Scholar
Smith, R. Y., Basinger, J. F., and Greenwood, D. R. 2009. Depositional setting, fossil flora and paleoenvironment of the Early Eocene Falkland site, Okanagan Highlands, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 46:811–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. Y., Greenwood, D. R., and Basinger, J. F. 2010, Estimating paleoatmospheric pCO2 during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum from stomatal frequency of Ginkgo, Okanagan Highlands, British Columbia, Canada. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 293:120–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. Y., Basinger, J. F., and Greenwood, D. R. 2012. Early Eocene plant diversity and dynamics in the Falkland flora, Okanagan Highlands, British Columbia, Canada. Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments, 92:309–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sukatsheva, I. D. 1985. Yurskie skorpionnitsy yuzhnoj Sibiri i zapadnoy Mongolii [Jurassic scorpionflies of South Siberia and West Mongolia], p. 96–114. InRasnitsyn, A. P.(ed.), Yurskie Nasekomye Sibiri i Mongolii [The Jurassic insects of Siberia and Mongolia]. Nauka Press, Moscow.Google Scholar
Tan, J. and Hua, B. 2008. The second species of the Chinese Panorpodidae (Mecoptera), Panorpodes brachypodus sp. nov. Zootaxa, 1751:59–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornhill, R. 1980. Competition and coexistence among Panorpa scorpionflies (Mecoptera: Panorpidae). Ecological Monographs, 50:179–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vickers-Rich, P. and Molnar, R. E. 1996. The foot of a bird from the Eocene Redbank Plains Formation of Queensland, Australia. Alcheringa, 20:21–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villeneuve, M. and Mathewes, R. 2005. An early Eocene age for the Quilchena fossil locality, southern British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada, Current Research 2005-A4, 7p.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wappler, T., Currano, E. D., Wilf, P., Rust, J., and Labandeira, C. C. 2009. No post-Cretaceous ecosystem depression in European forests? Rich insect-feeding damage on diverse middle Palaeocene plants, Menat, France. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 276:4271–4277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wappler, T., Labandeira, C. C., Rust, J., Frankenhäuser, H., and Wilde, V. 2012. Testing for the effects and consequences of mid Paleogene climate change on insect herbivory. PLoS ONE 7, e40744.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webb, D. W. and Penny, N. D. 1979. Neopanorpa byersi (Mecoptera: Panorpidae), a new species from Thailand. Pacific Insects, 20:63–66.Google Scholar
Wilf, P. and Labandeira, C. C. 1999. Response of plant-insect associations to Paleocene–Eocene warming. Science, 284:2153–2153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilf, P., Cúneo, N. R., Johnson, K. R., Hicks, J. F., Wing, S. L., and Obradovich, J. D. 2003. High plant diversity in Eocene South America: evidence from Patagonia. Science, 300:122–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilf, P. and Johnson, K. R. 2004. Land plant extinction at the end of the Cretaceous: a quantitative analysis of the North Dakota megafloral record. Paleobiology, 30:347–368.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilf, P., Johnson, K. R., Cúneo, N. R., Smith, M. E., Singer, B. S., and Gandolfo, M. A. 2005a. Eocene Plant Diversity at Laguna del Hunco and Río Pichileufú, Patagonia, Argentina. The American Naturalist, 165:634–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilf, P., Labandeira, C. C., Johnson, K. R., Cúneo, N. R, and Dilcher, D. L. 2005b. Richness of plant–insect associations in Eocene Patagonia: a legacy for South American biodiversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., 102:8944–8948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilf, P., Labandeira, C. C., Johnson, K. R., and Ellis, B. 2006. Decoupled plant and insect diversity after the end-Cretaceous extinction. Science, 313:1112–1115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willmann, R. 1977. Zur systematischen Stellung von Austropanorpa (Insecta, Mecoptera) aus dem Alttertiär Australiens. Paläontologische Zeitschrift, 51:12–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willmann, R. 1987. The phylogenetic system of Mecoptera. Systematic Entomology, 12:519–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willmann, R. and Novokshonov, V. 1998. Neue Mecopteren aus dem oberen Jura von Karatau (Kasachstan) (Insecta: ‘Orthophlebiidae'). Paläontologische Zeitschrift, 72:281–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, E. O. and Hölldobler, B. 2005. The rise of the ants: a phylogenetic and ecological explanation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., 102:7411–7414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfe, J. A. 1975. Some aspects of plant geography of the Northern Hemisphere during the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 62:264–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, J. A., Gregory-Wodzicki, K. M., Molnar, P., and Mustoe, G. 2003. Rapid uplift and then collapse in the Eocene of the Okanagan? Evidence from paleobotany. Geological Association of Canada–Mineralogical Association of Canada–Society of Economic Geologists, Joint Annual Meeting, Vancouver, Abstracts 28:533(CD-ROM).Google Scholar
Zachos, J. C., Dickens, G. R., and Zeebe, R. E. 2008. An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon cycle dynamics. Nature, 451:279–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhong, W., Zhang, J.-X., and Hua, B.-Z. 2011. (Panorpodes kuandianensis, a new species of short-faced scorpionflies (Mecoptera, Panorpodidae) from Liaoning, China. Zootaxa, 2921:47–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar