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The Political Economy of Resources: Africa's Future in the Global Environment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 November 2008

Timothy M. Shaw  and
Malcolm J. Grieve
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Extract

Africa has become more reliant – not less – on exports of primary products and raw materials and on imports of finished and semifinished goods since independence… the fact that Africa's role in the world economy has undergone a relative decline at the same time as dependence on foreign markets, goods and capital has experienced an absolute increase is evidence that the gap between Africa and the industrialised world is growing, despite the ambitious efforts of African states to close it.1

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Articles
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The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 16 , Issue 1 , March 1978 , pp. 1 - 32
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1978

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References

page 1 note 1 Lister, Douglas W., ‘Africa in the World Economy’, in Knight, C. Gregory and Newman, James L. (eds.), Contemporary Africa: geography and change (Englewood Cliffs, 1976), p. 456.Google Scholar

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page 2 note 1 Cf. the rather uncritical ‘Goals in Africa [and in the Middle East]’, in Laszlo, Ervin et al. Goalsfor Mankind: a report to the Club of Rome on the new horizons of global community (New York, 1977), pp. 140–54.Google Scholar

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page 2 note 3 Kamarck, Andrew M., ‘Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1980s: an economic profile’, in Kitchen, Helen (ed.), Africa: from mystery to maze (Lexington, 1976), Critical Choices for Americans, Vol. XI, p. 170.Google Scholar

page 2 note 4 Ibid. p. 185.

page 3 note 1 Ibid. pp. 186–7.

page 3 note 2 Ibid. pp. 183 and 187.

page 3 note 3 Schaufele, William E., ‘The Climate for Doing Business in Africa’, Department of State Statement, Philadelphia, 15 04 1977, p. 2.Google Scholar See also Vance, Cyrus, ‘US Policy Toward Africa’, The Secretary of State Speech, St. Louis, 1 07 1977, especially p. 6.Google Scholar

page 4 note 1 Kamarck, loc. cit. p. 187.

page 4 note 2 Philippe Lemaitre, ‘Who will Rule Africa by the Year 2000?’, in Kitchen (ed.), op. cit. p. 266.

page 4 note 3 On this strategy for the ‘middling rich’, see Philip Ehrensaft, ‘Polarized Accumulation and the Theory of Economic Dependence: the implications of South African semi-industrial capitalism’, in Gutkind and Wallerstein (eds.), op. cit. pp. 58–9.

page 5 note 1 Lemaitre, loc. cit. p. 268.

page 5 note 2 Ibid. p. 267.

page 5 note 3 Ibid. p. 269.

page 5 note 4 On the rôle of such states in regional integration and conflict, and on the degree to which they function as proxies, see Shaw, Timothy M., ‘Inequalities and Interdependence in Africa and Latin America: sub-imperialism and semi-industrialism in the semi-periphery’, African Studies Association, Houston, 11 1977.Google Scholar

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page 5 note 6 See Shaw, Timothy M. and Grieve, Malcolm J., ‘Dependence or Development: a review article on international and internal inequalities in Africa’, in Development and Change (Beverly Hills), VIII, 3, 07 1977, pp. 377–408;Google Scholar ‘Inequalities and the State in Africa, in Review of Black Political Economy (New York), forthcoming; and ‘The Political Economy of Africa: internal and international inequalities’, in Munger Africana Library Notes (Pasadena), forthcoming.

page 5 note 7 Lemaitre, loc. cit. p. 275.

page 6 note 1 Schaufele, op. cit. As the U.S. Secretary of State has recently admitted: ‘Africa's potential is tied to our own… Africa's mineral and agricultural wealth already provides a substantial portion of our own imports of such commodities as copper, cobalt, and manganese for our industries, and cocoa and coffee for our homes. And Africa supplies 38 per cent of our crude petroleum imports. Our direct investment in sub-Saharan Africa has increased nearly sixfold over the past 15 years; our trade now is almost 12 times what it was then.’ Vance, op. cit. p. I.

page 6 note 2 Lister, loc. cit. p. 43.

page 7 note 1 Jacquelyn L. Beyer, ‘Mineral, Energy and Water Resources’, in Knight and Newman (eds.), op. cit. pp. 177 and 171–2.

page 7 note 2 Ibid. p. 172.

page 7 note 3 On the dilemmas of African dependence and instability, see Markovitz, Irving Leonard, Power and Class in Africa (Englewood Cliffs, 1977),Google Scholar and Bretton, Henry L., Power and Polities in Africa (Chicago, 1973).Google Scholar

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page 8 note 3 Compare, for example, Kjekshus, Helge, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, 1977),Google Scholar and Munro, J. Forbes, Africa and the International Economy, 1800–1960 (London, 1976).Google Scholar

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page 10 note 2 Cf. Shaw, Timothy M., Dependence and Underdevelopment: the development and foreign policies of Zambia (Athens, Ohio, 1976),Google Scholar and ‘Zambia: dependence and underdevelopment’, in Canadian Journal of African Studies (Montreal), X, I, 1976, pp. 3–22.

page 10 note 3 On the prospects for confrontation, especially if the state controls raw materials like oil, see Girvan, Norman, ‘Economic Nationalism’, in Vernon, Raymond (ed.), The Oil Crisis (New York, 1976), pp. 145–58, especially p. 151,Google Scholar and Radetzki, Marian, ‘The Potential for Monopolistic Commodity Pricing by Developing Countries’, in Helleiner, G. K. (ed.), A World Divided: the less developed countries in the international economy (Cambridge, 1976), pp. 53–76.Google Scholar

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page 10 note 5 On the attractions of a ‘mature’ form of counter-dependence, see Mazrui, Ali A., ‘The New Interdependence’, in Erb, Guy F. and Kallab, Valeriana (eds.), Beyond Dependence: the developing world speaks out (Washington, 1975), pp. 38–54,Google Scholar and A World Federation of Cultures: an African perspective (New York, 1976), pp. 307–28 and 437–72.Google Scholar

page 10 note 6 Davidson, Basil, Can Africa Survive? arguments against growth without development (Boston, 1974), p. 71.Google Scholar

page 11 note 1 Ibid. p. 85. For a similar perspective on the inevitability of ‘dependent’ capitalism and the desirability of indigenous socialism, see Nyerere, Julius K., ‘The Rational Choice’, in his Freedom and Development/Uhuru na Maendeleo (Dar es Salaam, 1973), pp. 379–90.Google Scholar

page 11 note 2 See Shaw, Timothy M., ‘The Actors in African International Politics’, in Shaw, Timothy M. and Heard, Kenneth A. (eds.), Politics of Africa: dependence and development (London, 1978),Google Scholar and Beyer, loc. cit. pp. 168–88.

page 11 note 3 Shaw, ‘Discontinuities and Inequalities in African International Politics’, p. 390.

page 12 note 1 See Shaw, Timothy M., ‘Kenya and South Africa: sub-imperialist states in Africa’, in Orbis (Philadelphia), XXI, 2, Summer 1977, pp. 375–94,Google Scholar and P. -Kiven Tunteng, ‘External Influences and Subimperialism in Francophone West Africa’, in Gutkind and Wallerstein (eds.), op. cit. pp. 212–31.

page 12 note 2 Cf. the United Nations Report on the World Social Situation, 1974 (New York, 1975), pp. 60 and 64.Google Scholar

page 12 note 3 See the U.N.C.T.A.D. Review of International Trade and Development (New York, 1973), p. 40.Google Scholar

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page 12 note 5 See ‘Special Study: agriculture in Africa’, in Africa (London), 71, July 1977, p. 91.

page 12 note 6 See Green, Reginald Herbold, ‘Petroleum Prices and African Development: retrenchment or reassessment?’, in International Journal, 30, 3, Summer 1975, pp. 391–405.Google Scholar

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page 13 note 4 See ‘Recommendations of the First African Conference on the Petroleum Industry’, ibid. pp. c188–90. On the dilemmas posed by only partial African control, see Shaw, Timothy M., ‘Oil, Israel and the OAU: an introduction to the political economy of energy in Southern Africa’, in Africa Today (Denver), 23, 1, 01/03 1976, pp. 15–26.Google Scholar

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page 13 note 6 ‘Africa does less of its own research and development than any other continent in terms of expenditure as a percentage of G.N.P. It has less scientists and technicians per person than Latin America and Asia.’ Ivanov, Ivan, ‘Transfer of Technology: your own R & D is the key’, in Development Forum (Geneva), V. 3, 04 1977, p. 3.Google Scholar

page 13 note 7 ‘The Use of Solar Energy in Africa’, in Africa Contemporary Record, Vol. VIII, 1975–1976, p. C144.

page 14 note 1 Davidson, op. cit. p.37.

page 14 note 2 For an early advocacy of continentalism which remains relevant, see Green, Reginald H. and Seidman, Ann, Unity or Poverty? the economics of pan-Africanism (Harmondsworth. 1968).Google Scholar

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page 14 note 4 On the need for a sensitive, indigenous, African perspective on these imperatives which incorporates historical, cultural, and ideological inheritances, as well as a redefinition of development, see Diarrassouba, V. Ch. and Memei-Fote, H., ‘L'Afrique et la problématique du future’, in The United Nations and the Future: proceedings of UNITAR Conference, Moscow, June 1974 (Moscow, 1976), pp. 295–331.Google Scholar

page 15 note 1 The incidence of such ecological problems has increased since colonisation according to Helge Kjekshus, op. cit. especially pp. 126–85.

page 15 note 2 See Dumont, René, Socialisms and Development (London, 1973).Google Scholar

page 15 note 3 Dumont, False Start in Africa, p. 205.

page 15 note 4 See Samir Amm, ‘UNCTAD IV and the New International Economic Order’, and Atta-Mills, Cadman, ‘Africa and the New International Economic Order’, in Africa Development (Dakar),1, 1, 05 1976, pp. 5–11 and 22–7.Google Scholar

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page 16 note 2 ‘OAU/ECA Declaration on Cooperation, Development and Economic Independence, May 1973’, in Africa Contemporary Record, Vol. VI, 1973–1974, p. C212.

page 16 note 3 One of many persuasive arguments against the confusion of growth with the development of the quality of life is that of Mishan, E. J., ‘Making the Future Safe for Mankind’, in Public Interest (New York), 24, Summer 1971, pp. 33–61.Google Scholar

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page 17 note 2 For criticisms of the ‘contribution’ of foreign visitors see, for instance, Shivji, I. G. (ed.), Tourism and Socialist Development (Dar es Salaam, 1973).Google Scholar

page 17 note 3 In the case of Tanzania, see Kjekshus, op. cit. pp. 69–80.

page 17 note 4 ‘OAU/ECA Declaration on Cooperation, Development and Economic Independence’, loc. cit. p. C214.

page 18 note 1 Report of the Regional Preparatory Conference for Africa, Cairo, June 1975 (New York, 1975), p. 10.

page 18 note 2 Ibid. p. 6.

page 18 note 3 For a review of water, energy, and soil, see ‘Third World Environment’, in New Internationalist (Oxford), 40, June 1976, p. 609. On Africa's participation at the U.N. Water Conference, Mar Del Plata, Argentina, and the maildistribution of the continent's water resources, see Ndege, William, ‘The Case for a Water Strategy’, in Africa, 69, 05 1977, pp. 79–81.Google Scholar

page 18 note 4 Report of the Regional Preparatory Conference for Africa, p. 11.

page 18 note 5 For a call for more, but redesigned co-operation between the rich and the poor, see Jordan, Robert S. and Renninger, John P., ‘The New Environment of Nation-Building’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, XIII, 2, 06 1975, pp. 187–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Cf. Amin, ‘UNCTAD IV and the New International Economic Order’, and Atta-Mills, ‘Africa and the New International Economic Order’, loc. cit.

page 18 note 6 For a comprehensive review of the environmental obstacles to development in Africa, focusing particularly on tropical weather, soils, pests, and health, as well as the need for intensive indigenous research, see Kamarck, Anthew M., The Tropics and Economic Development: a provocative inquiry into the poverty of nations (Baltimore, 1976).Google Scholar

page 19 note 1 Davidson, op. cit. p. 29. See also Markovitz, op. cit. and Richard Harris (ed.), The Political Economy of Africa (Cambridge, Mass. 1975).

page 19 note 2 Davidson, Basil, Which Way Africa? the search for a new society (Harmondsworth, 1967), p. 181.Google Scholar For a somewhat comparable change of perception, see Helleiner, Gerald K., ‘Standing Up to the World: the new mood in the less-developed countries’, in Development Dialogue (Uppsala), 2, 1974, pp. 25–31,Google Scholar and ‘The Least-Developed in the New International Economic Order: devil take the hindmost?’, in Cooperation Canada (Ottawa), 25, 1976, pp. 3–13.

page 19 note 3 On the failure of African agriculture to keep up with population growth and new demands for wheat products in the cities, see African Contemporary Record, Vol. VIII, 1975–1976, pp. C132–9.

page 19 note 4 United Nations, Survey of Economic Conditions in Africa, 1973. Part One (New York, 1974), p. 3.

page 19 note 5 Ibid. pp. 3–4.

page 19 note 6 ‘Restructuring of Africa's Trade: ECA Note for ECA/OAU Joint Meeting on Trade and Development, August 1971’, in Africa Contemporary Record, Vol. IV, 1971–1972, p. C338. For a revised and updated version of this document, see ‘Restructuring of Africa's Foreign Trade: UNCTAD, Santiago, March 1972’, in ibid. Vol. V, 1972–1973, pp. C242–9.

page 20 note 1 On the effect of oil and inflation, see ‘ECA and the Impact of the World Crisis on African Development’, in African Target (Addis Ababa), VII, I, 09 1974, pp. 6–10 and 26–30.Google Scholar

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page 21 note 2 In this regard the potential of the Sudan may further enhance its rôle as an intermediary between Africa and the Middle East.

page 21 note 3 ‘The Food Situation in Africa: ECA paper, April 1974’, in Africa Contemporary Record. Vol. VII, 1974–1975, p. c163.Google Scholar

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page 22 note 1 See Schneider, William, Food, Foreign Polity and Raw Materials Cartels (New York, 1976),Google Scholar for a proposal to use food as a weapon to obtain regular resource flows. See also Rothschild, Emma, ‘Food Politics’, in Foreign Affairs (New York), 54, 2, 01 1976, pp. 285–307,Google Scholar and Islam, Nasir, ‘Politics of World Food Scarcity’, in International Perspectives (Ottawa), 11/12 1976, pp. 18–22.Google Scholar

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page 22 note 3 See ‘Dakar Declaration on Raw Materials’, in Africa Contemporary Record, Vol. VIII, 1975–1976, pp. C155–7.Google Scholar Cf. Guy F. Erb, ‘The Developing World's “Challenge” in Perspective’, in Erb and Kallab (eds.), op. cit. pp. 135–56, and Sewell, John W., ‘The United States and World Development, 1977’, in his collection on The United States and World Development: agenda 1977 (New York, 1977), pp. 1–20.Google Scholar

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page 23 note 1 See U.N. and E.C.A. data on ‘Population’, in Africa Contemporary Record, Vol. VIII, 1975–1976, pp. c120–6.Google Scholar For more on high fertility, mortality, and population growth rates in Africa, especially on an unfavourable age structure and on prospects for development, see S. K. Gaisie, ‘Demographic Prospects for Tropical Africa for the Next Thirty Years’, and Saxton, G. A., ‘The Price of Death Control without Birth Control in Africa over the Next Thirty Years’, in Mazrui, Ali A. and Patel, Hasu H. (eds.), Africa in World Affairs: the next thirty years (New York, 1973), pp. 135–72,Google Scholar and Ian D. Thomas, ‘Population Patterns, Proections, and Policies’, in Knight and Newman (eds.) op. cit. pp. 54–70.

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page 23 note 3 Leontief, Wassily et al. The Future of the World Economy: a United Nations study (New York, 1977).Google Scholar

page 23 note 4 Ibid. p. 8.

page 24 note 1 Ibid. pp. 30 and 32.

page 24 note 2 Ibid. pp. 32–3.

page 24 note 3 Ibid. pp. 34–63.

page 25 note 1 International Development Research Centre, Catastrophe or New Society? A Latin American World Model (Ottawa, 1976).Google Scholar

page 25 note 2 Ibid. p. 89.

page 25 note 3 Ibid. p. 99.

page 25 note 4 Mesarovic, Mihajlo and Pestel, Eduard, Mankind at the Turning Point: the second report to the Club of Rome (New York, 1974).Google Scholar

page 25 note 5 Tinbergen, Jan et al. R.I.O. – Reshaping the International Order: a report to the Club of Rome (New York, 1976).Google Scholar

page 26 note 1 Source: Catastrophe or New Society? pp.91 and 100. The main differences in the assumptions between the optimistic and the pessimistic scenarios concern the degree of technological change and the extent to which African societies are restructured.

page 26 note 2 On Africa's aggregate unpromising future in terms of ‘basic needs’ and development, see the statistical annexes in the annual O.D.C. publications on US and World Development, 1973 to 1977. See also Zartman, I. William, ‘Africa in the 19805: the policy challenge’, in Africa in the 1980s (New York, 1978).Google Scholar

page 27 note 1 Source: R.I.O.–Reshaping the International Order, p. 91.

page 27 note 2 Mazrui suggests this as a generalisable form of ‘counter-penetration’ because of ‘the conversion of Third World resources from their old role as sources of dependency to a new role as sources of power’; A World Federation of Cultures, p. 441. See also Matthews, Robert O., ‘The Third World: powerful or powerless?’, in Kontos, Alkis (ed.), Domination (Toronto, 1975), pp. 69–87.Google Scholar

page 28 note 1 See Wallerstein, Immanuel, ‘Dependence in an Interdependent World: the limited possibilities of transformation within the capitalist world economy’, in African Studies Review, XVII, 1, 04 1974, pp. 5–26.Google Scholar

page 28 note 2 Immanuel Wallerstein, ‘The Three Stages of African Involvement in the World Economy’ in Gutkind and Wallerstein (eds.), op. cit. p. 48.

page 29 note 1 Ibid. p. 49. On the growing relationship between agri-business and the Food and Agricultural Organisation, which serves to legitimise corporate penetration in the food Sector, see ‘Special Study: agriculture in Africa’, in Africa, 71, 07 1977, pp. 94–6.Google Scholar

page 29 note 2 Ehrensaft, loc. cit. p. 62.

page 29 note 3 Ibid. p. 66. See also Warren, Bill, ‘Myths of Underdevebopment: imperialism and capitalist industrialisation’, in New Left Review (London), 81, 09–10 1973, pp. 3–45.Google Scholar

page 30 note 1 Wallerstein, , ‘The Three Stages of African Involvement in the World Economy’, p. 50.Google Scholar

page 30 note 2 See Tamas Szentes, ‘Socio-Econoniic Effects of Two Patterns of Foreign Capital investments, with Special Reference to East Africa’, in Gutkind and Wallerstein (eds.), op. cit. pp. 274–85.

page 30 note 3 Ibid. pp. 285–6.

page 30 note 4 Adedeji, Adebayo, ‘Interview: Africa's economic strategy’, in Africa, 71, 07 1977, P. 48.Google Scholar

page 30 note 5 Ibid. p. 50.

page 31 note 1 On these, see What Now? The 1975 Dag Hammarskjöld Report (Uppsala, 1975),Google Scholar and Employment, Growth and Basic Needs: a one-world problem (New York, 1977).Google Scholar

page 31 note 2 For undogmatic socialist perspectives on the relationships between pollution, under-development, capitalism, and exploitation, see Caldwell, Malcolm et al. Socialism and the Environment (Montreal, 1976),Google Scholar and Stretton, Hugh, Capitalism, Socialism and the Environment (Cambridge, 1976).Google Scholar

page 31 note 3 Cf. the rather optimistic and simplistic analysis of Zartman, I. William, ‘Europe and Africa: decolonization or dependence?’, in Foreign Affairs, 54, 2, 01 1976, pp. 325–43.Google Scholar For more critical and sophisticated inquiries into the Eur-African relationship as a case of North–South asymmetries, see Galtung, Johan, ‘The Lomé Convention: updated dependence or departure toward collective self-reliance?’, in African Review (Dares Salaam), VI, 1, 1976, pp. 33–54,Google Scholar and Dolan, Michael B., ‘The Lomé Convention and Europe's Relationship with the Third World: a critical analysis’, International Studies Association, St. Louis, 1977.Google Scholar

page 31 note 4 See Zartman, , ‘Africa in the 1980s, pp. 16–18.Google Scholar

page 32 note 1 Ibid. pp. 2–4.

page 32 note 2 See Shaw, Timothy M., ‘The International Politics of Southern Africa: change or continuity?’ in Issue, VII, 1, Spring 1977, pp. 19–26,Google Scholar and Manning, Robert, ‘What the West Wants in Zimbabwe’, in New African Development (London), 11, 7, 07 1977, pp. 631 and 633.Google Scholar

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