The Lomeé Convention: an Evaluation of E.E.C. Economic Assistance to the A.C.P. States

Cecil Rajana

doi:10.1017/S0022278X00024447

The Lomeé Convention: an Evaluation of E.E.C. Economic Assistance to the A.C.P. States

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 November 2008

Cecil Rajana

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The primary purpose of this article is to offer a critical, multifaceted evalution of the economic assistance extended by the European Economic Community (E.E.C.) to the African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of states (A.C.P.s) under the terms of the Convention of Lomé. The first agreement was concluded in 1975, followed by the second in 1979, which runs until March 19852. Both, of course, were signed in the capital of Togo. The Lomé Convention is largely a product of the E.E.C. association policy, included as Articles 131–136 in the Treaty of Rome3, primarily at the insistence of France. This led to the Implementing Convention of 1958 which governed the aid and trade ties between the E.E.C. and the 17 colonial dependencies of member states. Specifically, the Implementing Convention instituted a free-trade area between the associated dependencies and the Community, and created the European Development Fund (E.D.F. or Fund) as a source of supplementary aid.

Type: Articles
Information: The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 20 , Issue 2 , June 1982 , pp. 179 - 220

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00024447 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1982

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^{page 179 note 1} E.E.C., Community, and the Nine are used synonymously. So are the A.C.P.s, the Associated States, and the Sixty. The Associates refer to the A.C.P. members which belonged to the Yaoundé Conventions; the Associables are those A.C.P.s that did not.Google Scholar

^{page 179 note 2} European Economic Community, The Lomé Convention and Related Documents (Brussels, 1975)Google Scholar, and The Second ACP-EEC Convention and Related Documents (Brussels, 1980).Google Scholar

^{page 179 note 3} European Economic Community, The Treaty of Rome and Related Documents (Brussels, 1958), p. 41.Google Scholar

^{page 180 note 1} Hart, Judith, Aid and Liberation (London, 1973), p. 16.Google Scholar

^{page 181 note 1} Cited by Secretariat, A.C.P., ‘Review of the Lomé Convention’, Brussels, ACP/CON/2:90/Draft, p. 21.Google Scholar

^{page 181 note 2} One unit of account (Ua) was approximately U.S.$1.25 in January 1981.

^{page 181 note 3} Jeske, John (ed.), Botswana's External Trade in the Light of Lomé (Gaborone, 1979), p. 48Google Scholar, and Pass, Alber, ‘Le Protocole No. 3 sur le sucre ACP annexe à la Convention de Lomé’, in Revue du marché commun (Paris), 35, 210, 1977, pp. 403–4.Google Scholar

^{page 181 note 4} Belay, Hailu, European Economic Community Aid to Africa (Africa (The Hague, The Institute of Social Studies, 1980), p. 133.Google Scholar

^{page 181 note 5} Secretariat, A.C.P., ‘Summary Report of the Outcome of the Presidential Contac Group’, Brussels, 1979, p. 56.Google Scholar

^{page 183 note 1} Source: European Economic Community, Secretaria Aid Review, 1979: ACP (Brussels, 1980), Table 2.Google Scholar

^{page 183 note 2} Eisen, Helen and White, John, ‘What Can a Country DO to Get More Aid?’, in IDS Bulletin (Brighton), 6, 4, 03 1975, pp. 68–70.Google Scholar

^{page 183 note 3} Rubin, Abbey, Lomé II: the renegotiation of the Lomé Convention (Dublin, 1978), p. 10.Google Scholar

^{page 183 note 4} Hill, John, ‘The European Development Fund: proposals for renegotiations’, in Catholic Institute of International Relations, The Renegotiations of the Lomé Convention (London, 1978), pp. 10–11.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 1} Dolan, Michael, ‘The Lomé Convention and Europe's Relations with the Third World: a critical analtsis’, in Revue d'sintégration européenne (Montreal), 1, 3, 1978, pp. 369–94.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 2} Hewitt, Adrian, ‘The EDF as a Develpment Agent: some results of EDF aid to the Cameroon’, in ODI Review (London), 7, 2, 1979, pp. 43–4.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 3} Hewitt, Adrian, Aid from the EDF: a country-level evaluation (London, 1980), ch. 1.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 4} Roy, Maurice Pierre, ‘La Convention de Lomé: amorée d'un nouvel order économique international’, in Notes et éudes documentaires (Paris), 30, 4313–15, 1975, pp. 31–2Google Scholar, and de Limbourg, Iris, ‘Aide au développement de la Ce en chiffres’, in Objectif Europe (Brussels), 4, 2, 1979, pp. 22–4.Google Scholar

^{page 184 note 5} For example, the aid of Denmark and the Netherlands does represent additionality, that of Britian and France does marginally, that of Germany and Italy significantly, and Ireland and Luxembourg wholly. For details, see Joules, Henri, A Review of AAMS—EEC and ACP—EEC Relations (Uppsala, 1980), p. 19.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 1} Whether it diverted aid from non-A.C.P.–L.D.C.s depends on how one views the smsll increase in donor aid from 1975. One could contene that, in the absence of the Convention, the increade would have occurred and accrued to all L.D.Cs in accordance with the pre-Lomé aid-allocation pattern. However, this is debatable.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 2} Love, Jim and Disney, Richard, ‘The Lomé Convention: a case study of likely benefits’, Department of Economics, University of Strsthclyde, Glasgow, 1976, Discussion Paper No, 1, p. 17.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 3} O.E.C.D.., Development Co-operation: 1979 Review (Paris, 1979), pp. 121 and 227.Google Scholar

^{page 185 note 4} Memorandum of the Commission to the Council on Futur Relations between the Community, the Present AAMS States, and the Countries of Africa, the Caribbean, the Indian and Pacific Oceans Referred to in Protocol 22 (Brussels, 1979), p. 4.Google Scholar

^{page 186 note 1} Gruhn, Isebill, ‘The Lomé Convention: inching towards inerdependence’, in International Organization (Madison), 30, 2, 1979, p. 257.Google Scholar

^{page 186 note 2} Green, Reginald H., ‘The Lomé Convention: updated dependence or departure towards collective self-reliance’, in The African Review (Dar es Salaam), 6, 1, 1976, p. 51.Google Scholar

^{page 186 note 3} Population in both cases taken at the mid-point of the respective Conventions.

^{page 186 note 4} Dolan, loc. cit. p. 379.

^{page 186 note 5} O.E.C.D., Development Co-operation: 1978 Review (Paris, 1978), pp. 196–7.Google Scholar

^{page 186 note 6} Wall, David, ‘The European Community's Lomé Convention; STABEX and the Third World aspirations’, London, Trade Policy Research Centre, Guest Paper No. 4, 1979, p. 13.Google Scholar

^{page 186 note 7} Voorhoeve, Jan, ‘Financial and Technical Cooperation: the EDF and the Lomé Convention’, in von Geusau, F.A.M. Alting (ed.), The Lomé Convention and the New International Economic Order (Leyden,1977), p. 113.Google Scholar

^{page 186 note 8} Jones, David, Europe's Chosen Few: Policy and Practice of EEC aid Programme (London, 1975), p. 4.Google Scholar

^{page 187 note 1} Source: A.C.P. Secretariat, ‘ACP–EECF Financial and Technical Cooperation’, Brussels, 1979, para. 2.Google Scholar

^{page 187 note 2} Source: Ibid.

^{page 188 note 1} Cited in ‘Review of the Lomé Convention’, p. 28.

^{page 188 note 2} Hartwich, Dieter, ‘De Yaoundé à Lomé: un champ d's activités élargil pour la Banque européenne d'investissement’, in Afrique infrastructures (Paris), 14, 153, 1978, pp. 16–17.Google Scholar

^{page 189 note 1} Details are on Table 1. See also Belay, op. cit. pp. 48–52, and E.I.B. Research Department, European Investment Bank (Luxembourg, 1979), pp. 5–21.Google Scholar

^{page 189 note 2} European Economic Community. Internal Agreement (Brussels, 1975), Articles 14 and 16.Google Scholar

^{page 191 note 1} Jeske, op. cit. pp. 11–18.

^{page 191 note 2} Ibid. p. 21.

^{page 191 note 3} A.C.P. Secretariat, ‘ACP–EEC Cooperation: analysis, application and outlook’, Brussels, 1980, Draft Report of the A.C.P.–E.E.C. Council of Ministers, p. 126.Google Scholar

^{page 192 note 1} The practice whereby donors say to potential recipients, ‘If you were to ask for aid for such and such a project, we would probably say yes’ known as ‘ventriloquising requeats’.

^{page 192 note 2} ‘ACP–EEC Financial and Techinical Cooperation’, para. 38.

^{page 192 note 3} Ellimah, Rebecca, ‘Financial and Technical Cooperation under the ACP–EEC Convention of Lomé’, in University of Ghan law Journal (Accra), xii, 1–2. 1976, p. 118.Google Scholar

^{page 192 note 4} Jones, op. cit. p. 67.

^{page 192 note 5} Sharp, Robin, EEC/ACP: one more time? (Amsterdam, 1979), p. 25.Google Scholar

^{page 193 note 1} See ‘Review of the Lomé Convention’, p. 38. Between 1964–75, 743 projected came before the Committee. Nine were turned down: of these, three were abandoned, and the other six were successfully appealed. Details are in, Masconi, Vittorio and Voorhoeve, Joris, ‘The European Community's Development Programme Aid’, in Finance and Development (Washington, D.C.), 13, 3, 1976, p. 37.Google Scholar

^{page 193 note 2} Coffey, Peter, The External Economic Relation of the EEC (London,1976), pp. 74 and 94.CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 196 note 1} The Europeans themselves trade with impunity with the apartheid régime in Pretoria, but have withheld permission from the Lesotho Goverment to purchase cement from South Africa with E.D.F. funds for the E.D.F. financial expansion of the National University. As a result, cement had to be imported from Europe at over twice the cost of supplies from South Africa.

^{page 196 note 2} Helleiner, Gerald, ‘Aid and Development in Africa: issues for recipients’, in Shaw, Timothy et al. (eds.), The Politics of Africa: dependence and development (Halifax, 1979), p. 160.Google Scholar

^{page 196 note 3} Joules, op. cit. p. 57.

^{page 197 note 1} Green, loc. cit. pp. 51–2.

^{page 197 note 2} Cited in ‘Review of the Lomé Convention’, p. 49.

^{page 197 note 3} Hill, loc. cit. p. 2.

^{page 197 note 4} European Economic Community, ‘Commission Communication to the Council on the Implementation of Community Aid to the ACP States’, Brussels, 24 04 1980, pp. 29–30.Google Scholar

^{page 198 note 1} Hewitt, Adrian and Stevens, Chirstopher, ‘The Second Lomé Convention», in Stevens, Christopher (ed.), EEC and the Third World: a survey l (London, 1981), pp. 30–59.Google Scholar

^{page 198 note 2} European Parliament, Consulative Assembly of the Lomé Convention, Third Meeting, 1978 (Brussels,1979), p. 20.Google Scholar

^{page 198 note 3} ‘Commission Communication to the Council on the Implementation of Community Aid to the ACP States’, p. 28.

^{page 199 note 1} Sources: D.A.C. Working Party on Assistance Requirements, Secretariat Review of the EEC Development Assistance Procedures (Paris, O.E.C.D., 1979), p. 15Google Scholar, and A.C.P. Secretariat, ‘Dradt Report of the ACP–EEC Council of Ministers’, Brussels, 1980, p. 140.Google Scholar

^{page 199 note 2} ‘ACP–EEC Co-operation’, p. 154.

^{page 201 note 1} European Economic Community, Évaluation globale des aides communautaire (Brussels, 1979), pp. 9–15.Google Scholar

^{page 201 note 2} Details are in Hewitt, Aid from the EDF, pp. 7–23.

^{page 201 note 3} Lemaignen, Robert, L'Europe au berceau – Souvenirs d'un technocrate (Paris, 1964), ch. IV, pp. 117–60.Google Scholar

^{page 202 note 1} European Economic Community, Development Aid: Fresco of the community action tomorrow (Brussels, 1974), pp. 15–16.Google Scholar

^{page 202 note 2} Crossed Purse Strings', in The Economist (London), 10 06 1975, p. 37.Google Scholar

^{page 202 note 3} See Joules, op. cit. p. 32.

^{page 203 note 1} ‘Problems of Sharing EEC Aid’, in West Africa (London), 58, 3956, 1976, p. 114Google Scholar, and Joules, op. cit. pp. 41–3.

^{page 203 note 2} It should be noted that the new Title (VI) in Lomé II on agricultural co-operation envisages no financial aid of its own to the A.C.P. States. A Center for Rural and Agricultural Co-operation is projected under Title VI, but it will confine its activities to technical assistance matters. See The Second ACP–EEC Convention, pp. 95–9. The aid tranfers made under the Stabex scheme to A.C.P. governments, in history, should be utilised in helping the development of the agricultural sector. In practise, and for reason of fungability, it is hard to tell what proportion finds its way into the sector, and the type of projects it is channelled to.

^{page 205 note 1} ‘Review of the Lomé Convention’, p. 53.

^{page 205 note 2} Ellimah, loc. cit. pp. 125–6.

^{page 205 note 3} See Nabudere, Dan, ‘The Lomé Convention and the Consolidation of Neo-Colonialism’, in Nabudere, Essays on the Theory and Practice of Imperialism (Dar es Salaam, 1979), pp. 123–9.Google Scholar

^{page 205 note 4} More details are in Joules, op. cit. pp. 88–93.

^{page 207 note 1} A good account of these can be found in European Economic Community, Report of the Commission on the Implementation of Microprojects under the Lomé Convention (Brussels, 1980), pp. 5–7.Google Scholar

^{page 207 note 2} ‘ACP–EEC Cooperation’, pp. 144–6.

^{page 208 note 1} Garrity, Monique, ‘Africa and the EEC’, in The Review of Block Political Economy (New York), 8, 1, 1977, p. 23Google Scholar, and Joutsamo, Kari, ‘The Lomé Convention – the Sun Never Sets’, in Instant Research on Peace and Violence (Tampere, Finland), v, 3, 1975, p. 147.Google Scholar

^{page 209 note 1} European Economic Community, Commission Report to the ACP–EEC Council of Ministers on the Administration of Financial and Technical Cooperation in 1978 (Brussels, 1979), p. 22.Google Scholar

^{page 209 note 2} European Economic Community, Second Annual Report of the ACP–EEC Council of Ministers (Brussels, 1978), pp.64–5.Google Scholar

^{page 210 note 1} Dolan, loc. cit. p. 382, and Green, loc. cit. p. 52.

^{page 210 note 2} Belay, op. cit. p. 66.

^{page 211 note 1} ‘Review of the Lomé Convention’, p. 35.

^{page 212 note 1} Sources: I.B.R.D., World Development Report: 1979 (Washington, 1980), Table 1, pp. 126–7Google Scholar (for population), and Marchés tropicaux et méditerranéens (Paris), 11 01 1980, p. 69 (for aid data).Google Scholar

^{page 212 note 2} Sources: ibid.

^{page 212 note 3} Stevents (ed.), op. cit. p. 42.

^{page 213 note 1} Mayall, James, ‘The Implementation for Africa of the Enlarged EEC’, in Shaw, (ed.), op. cit. p. 300.Google Scholar

^{page 213 note 2} Gerald, and Curzon, Victoria, ‘Neo-Colonialism and the European Economic Community’, in The Yearbook of World Affairs – 1971 (London, 1972), pp. 118–41.Google Scholar

^{page 214 note 1} Évaluation globale des aides communautaire, p. 6.

^{page 214 note 2} Hewitt, Aid from the EDF, p. 12.

^{page 214 note 3} Sheck, Mohamed, ‘The Lomé Convention and Tranzania's Basic Needs Strategy’, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, 1980, p. 11 mineographed.Google Scholar

^{page 215 note 1} O'Brien, Rita Cruise, ‘Evaluation of Technical Assistance Awarded by the Commission to the ACP States’, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton, 1980, p. 11. This study is a research report for the E.E.C. Development Directorate.Google Scholar

^{page 215 note 2} The contending interpretations are those expounded in the writings of Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, on the one hand, and André Gunder Frank and Samir Amin on the other hand. A relevant summary of these can be found in Holsti, Kal, ‘A new International Politics? Diplomacy in Complex Inderdependence’, in International Organization, 32, 1978, pp. 513–30.CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 216 note 1} Twitchett, Carol Cosgrove, Europe and Africa: from association to partnership (Farnborough, 1978), p. xiv.Google Scholar

^{page 216 note 2} Pearson, Lester B., Partners in Development: Report of the Commission on International Development (London, 1969), pp. 127–8.Google Scholar

^{page 216 note 3} Roy, loc. cit. p. 35.

^{page 216 note 4} ‘ACP–EEC Financial and Technical Cooperation’, p. 12.

^{page 217 note 1} Garrity, loc. cit. pp. 22–3.

^{page 217 note 2} Amoa, Ga-Kwame, ‘Euro-African Association and the Economic Development of Africa’, in I.D.E.P., Échanges internationaux et sous-développement (Paris, 1977), p. 99;Google Scholar see also Nabudere, loc. cit.

^{page 218 note 1} ‘Review of the Lome Convention’, p. 19.

^{page 218 note 2} For details, see Cecil, Rajana, ‘Lomé II and ACP–EEC Relations’, in Afrique et developpement (Dakar,), v, 3, 1980, P. 94.Google Scholar

^{page 220 note 1} Details are in North-South: a programme for survival. Report of the Independent Commission on International Development Issues (Cambridge, Mass., 1980)Google Scholar, and Programme of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order (New York, 1974).Google Scholar

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