The Foreign Policy of Zambia: Ideology and Interests

Timothy M. Shaw

doi:10.1017/S0022278X00024010

The Foreign Policy of Zambia: Ideology and Interests

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 November 2008

Timothy M. Shaw

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The foreign policy of any country contains a variety of values and goals, and advances several interests and concerns. This article examines the continuities and discontinuities, compatibilities and contradictions in the foreign policy of Zambia. In particular, it focuses on the emerging debate over the direction of the Zambian society and state, and over the definition of the national ideology of Humanism.

Type: Articles
Information: The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 14 , Issue 1 , March 1976 , pp. 79 - 105

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00024010 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1976

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^{page 79 note 1} See Shaw, Timothy M., Dependenec and Underdevelopment: the development and foreign policies of Zambia (Athens, Ohio, 1976).Google Scholar

^{page 80 note 1} On the variety of interests and institutions, both national and foreign, which participate in the making of foreign policy, see Shaw, Timothy M., ‘The Foreign Policy System of Zambia’, in African Studies Review (Syracuse), XIX, 1, 04 1976.Google Scholar

^{page 81 note 1} For a comprehensive and informative, if somewhat sentimental biography, see Macpherson, Fergus, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia: the times and the man (Lusaka, 1974).Google Scholar The President's own autobiography of his early years is more modest; see Kaunda, Kenneth D., Zambia Shall Be Free (London, 1962).Google Scholar

^{page 81 note 2} On the international and sub-national threats to Zambia, and the response of the régime, see Pettman, Jan, Zambia: security and conflict (London, 1974).Google Scholar

^{page 81 note 3} For a succinct account of Zambia's foreign policy and behaviour, see Bone, Marion, ‘The Foreign Policy of Zambia’, in Barston, Ronald P. (ed.), The Other Powers: studies in the foreign policies of small states (London, 1973), pp. 121–53.Google Scholar

^{page 82 note 1} Kaunda, Kenneth D., Letter to My Children (London, 1973), p. 53.Google Scholar

^{page 82 note 2} Ibid. p. 66.

^{page 82 note 3} Republic of Zambia, Daily Parliamentary Debates (Lusaka), 23 01 1974, col. 395.Google Scholar

^{page 82 note 4} Ibid. col. 396.

^{page 82 note 5} Ibid. col. 398. See also Mtshali, B. V., ‘Zambia's Foreign Policy’, in Current History (Philadelphia), LVIII, 343, 03 1970, pp. 148–53,Google Scholar and ‘Zambia's Foreign Policy Problems’, in African Social Research (Lusaka), XI, June 1971, pp. 50–4.

^{page 84 note 1} Manifesto on Southern Africa (Lusaka, April 1969), sections ii and i 2, reprinted in Grundy, Kenneth W., Confrontation and Accommodation in Southern Africa: the limits of independence (Berkeley, 1973), pp. 318–19.Google Scholar

^{page 84 note 2} Mogadishu Declaration, October 1971 (Cairo, 1971); extract reprinted in Legum, Cohn (ed.), Africa Contemporary Record: annual survey and documents, 1971–72 (London, 1972), pp. C18–19.Google Scholar For an analysis of this somewhat deviant statement, see Mtshali, B. V., ‘The Mogadishu Conference and Declaration, October 1971’, in Internationale Spectator (The Hague), XXIV, 10, 05 1972, pp. 966–77.Google Scholar

^{page 84 note 3} Zambia Daily Mail (Lusaka), 30 march 1974.

^{page 84 note 4} See Zambia, 1964–1974: a decade of achievement (Lusaka, 1974), pp. 12–13.

^{page 85 note 1} ‘The Dares Salaam Declaration on Southern Africa’, in Africa (London), 45, 05 1975, p. 18. See also the more intransigent introduction and resolution accompanying the Declaration in United Nations, Unit on Apartheid. Notes and Documents (New York), May 1975, entitled ‘OAU Calls for Total Destruction of Apartheid’.

^{page 85 note 2} On the increasing rôle of Africa's middle powers in continental affairs, see Shaw, Timothy M., ‘Discontinuities and Inequalities in African International Politics’, in International Journal (Toronto), XXX, 3, Summer 1974, pp. 369–90.Google Scholar

^{page 85 note 3} Lusaka Declaration on Peace, Independence, Development, Co-operation and Democratisation of International Relations (Lusaka, Sptember 1970), p. 5.

^{page 86 note 1} Declaration of Commonwealth Principles (London, 1971).

^{page 86 note 2} Kaunda, , Letter to My Children, p. 100.Google Scholar

^{page 86 note 3} Legum, Cohn (ed.), Zambia: independence and beyond. The Speeches of Kenneth Kaunda (London, 1966), p. 162.Google Scholar

^{page 87 note 1} Ibid. pp. 190–1.

^{page 87 note 2} See Address by President Kaunda on the Occasion of the Opening of the Third Summit Conference of Non-Aligned Countries, Lusaka, 8 September 1970 (Lusaka, 1970).

^{page 87 note 3} See Anglin, Douglas A., ‘Zambia and the Southern African Liberation Movements’, in Shaw, Timothy M. and Heard, Kenneth A. (eds.), Politics of Africa: development and dependence (London), forthcoming.Google Scholar

^{page 87 note 4} Macpherson, , Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, p. 99.Google Scholar

^{page 87 note 5} Zambia, 1964–1974, p. 9.

^{page 88 note 1} See Zambia in the Security Council, 1969 and 1970 (Lusaka, 1971).

^{page 88 note 2} Kaunda, Kenneth D., Africa in the Sixties: the decade of decision and definition (Lusaka, 1970), p. 22.Google Scholar

^{page 88 note 3} See Anglin, Douglas G., ‘Zambia's Disengagement from Southern Africa and Integration with East Africa’, in Shaw, Timothy M. and Heard, Kenneth A. (eds.), Co-operation and Conflict in Southern Africa: papers on a regional subsystem (London), forthcoming.Google Scholar

^{page 88 note 4} See Shaw, Timothy M., ‘Regional Cooperation and Conflict in Africa’, in International Journal, XXX, 4, Autumn 1975, pp. 671–88.CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 89 note 1} Legum, (ed.), Zambia: independence and beyond, pp. 45 and 184–5.Google Scholar

^{page 89 note 2} Kaunda, Kenneth D., A Humanist in Africa: letters to Cohn M. Morris (London, 1966), p. 127.Google Scholar

^{page 89 note 3} Zambia, 1964–1974, p. 10.

^{page 90 note 1} Legum, , (ed.), Zambia: independence and beyond, pp. 46 and 66–7.Google Scholar

^{page 90 note 2} Macpherson, , Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, p. 418.Google Scholar

^{page 90 note 3} Melady, Thomas Patrick (ed.), Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia: selections from his writings (New York, 1964), p. 38.Google Scholar

^{page 90 note 4} See Anglin, , ‘Zambia and the Southern African Liberation Movements’, and Hall, Richard, The High Price of Principles: Kaunda and the White South (London, 1973 edn.).Google Scholar

^{page 90 note 5} The Challenge of the Future (Lusaka, 1973), p. 12.

^{page 90 note 6} Zambia, 1964–1974, p. 12.

^{page 91 note 1} Legum, (ed.), Zambia: independence and beyond, p. 192.Google Scholar

^{page 91 note 2} Ibid. p. 46.

^{page 91 note 3} Ibid. p. 10.

^{page 91 note 4} ‘A Nation of Equals’ – the Kabwe Declaration (Lusaka, 1972), p. 6.

^{page 91 note 5} The Challenge of the Future, p. 4.

^{page 91 note 6} See ‘Take up the Challenge’ … Speeches made by President Kaunda to the UNIP National Council, Mulungushi Hall, November 1970 (Lusaka, 1970), p. 35. For a comprehensive statement of Humanism as an ideology of development, see Kaunda, Kenneth D., Humanism in Zambia and a Guide to its Implementation (Lusaka, 1968).Google Scholar

^{page 91 note 7} See Shaw, ‘Zambia: dependence and underdevelopment’.

^{page 92 note 1} See Seidman, Ann, ‘The Distorted Growth of Import-Substitution Industry: the Zambian case’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), XII, 4, 12 1974, pp. 601–31.Google Scholar

^{page 92 note 2} See Zambia's Guideline for the Next Decade (Lusaka, 1968); Towards Complete Independence (Lusaka, 1969); and This Completes Economic Reforms: ‘Now Zambia is Ours’ (Lusaka, 1970). For analyses of these reforms, see de Gaay Fortman, Bastiaan (ed.), After Mulungushi: the economics of Zambian Humanism (Nairobi, 1969);Google ScholarFaber, M.L.O. and Potter, J. G., Towards Economic Independence: papers on the nationalisation of the copper industry in Zambia (Cambridge, 1971);Google ScholarBostock, Mark and Harvey, Charles (eds.), Economic Independence and Zambian Copper: a case study of foreign investment (New York, 1972);Google Scholar and Martin, Anthony, Minding their own Business: Zambia's struggle against western control (London, 1975 edn.).Google Scholar

^{page 92 note 3} ‘President's Mulungushi Speech’, in Zambia Daily Mail and Times of Zambia (Ndola), 1 July 1975. See also Kaunda, Kenneth D., Humanism in Zambia and a Guide to its Implementation, Part II (Lusaka, 1974).Google Scholar

^{page 93 note 1} See Pettman, Jan, ‘Zambia's Second Republic – the Establishment of a One-Party State’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, XII, 2, 06 1974, pp. 231–44.CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 93 note 2} ‘Zambia: exploiters and exploited’, in Africa: an international business, economic and political monthly (London), 48, August 1975, p. 29.

^{page 93 note 3} Kaunda, , A Humanist in Africa, p. 115.Google Scholar

^{page 93 note 4} See Seidman, Ann, ‘The Need for an Industrial Strategy in Zambia’, University of Zambia, Lusaka, 12 1973.Google Scholar

^{page 94 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 4 July 1974, p. 1.

^{page 94 note 2} Legum, (ed.), Zambia: independence and beyond, p. 191.Google Scholar

^{page 94 note 3} Kaunda, , A Humanist in Africa, p. 121.Google Scholar

^{page 95 note 1} See UNIP National Policies for the Next Decade, 1974–1984 (Lusaka, 1973), pp. 68–70.

^{page 95 note 2} For a more comprehensive account of this range of institutions and rôles, see Shaw, ‘The Foreign Policy System of Zambia’.

^{page 95 note 3} ‘Chairman's Statement’, Indeco Limited Annual Report, 1973 (Lusaka, June 1973), p. 15.

^{page 96 note 1} See, inter alia, Shivji, Issa G., ‘Capitalism Unlimited: public corporations in partnership with multinational corporations’, in The African Review (Dares Salaam), III, 3, 1973, pp. 359–81;Google ScholarLoxley, John and Saul, John S., ‘Multinationals, Workers and Parastatals in Tanzania’, in Review of African Political Economy (London), 2, 01–04 1975, pp. 54–88;Google Scholar and Tordoff, William and Mazuri, Ali A., ‘The Left and the Super-Left in Tanzania’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, X, 3, 10 1972, pp. 427–45.CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 96 note 2} See Shaw, Timothy M., ‘The International Political Economy of Africa in an Era of Decolonisation’, African Studies Association, San Francisco, 10 1975.Google Scholar

^{page 96 note 3} Rothchild, Donald, ‘Rural-Urban Inequities and Resource Allocation in Zambia’, in Journal of Commonwealth Political Studies (Leicester), X, 3, 11 1972, p. 232.Google Scholar

^{page 96 note 4} Cf. Cross, Sholto, ‘Politics and Criticism in Zambia’, in Journal of Southern African Studies (London), I, I, 1974, pp. 109–15.Google Scholar

^{page 97 note 1} Molteno, Robert and Tordoff, William, ‘Conclusion – Independent Zambia: achievements and prospects’, in Tordoff, William (ed.), Politics in Zambia (Manchester, 1974), p. 389.Google Scholar

^{page 97 note 2} See Sklar, Richard L., Corporate Power in an African State: the political impact of multinational mining companies in Zambia (Berkeley, 1975).Google Scholar Cf. Johns, Sheridan, ‘State Capitalism in Zambia: the evolution of the parastatal sector’, African Studies Association, San Francisco, 10 1975.Google Scholar

^{page 97 note 3} See Republic of Zambia, Economic Report, 1973 (Lusaka, 1974), pp. 181–2.Google Scholar

^{page 97 note 4} Anglo-American Corporation of South Africa Limited. Annual Report, 1974 (Johannesburg, 1974), p. 15.

^{page 98 note 1} For a comment on the debate and advocacy of ‘shadow pricing’ to account for any difference between ‘profitable’ and ‘socialistic’ operations, see Fry, James, ‘Management Question: profits or employment?’, in Enterprise (Lusaka), I, 1975, pp. 37–9.Google Scholar

^{page 98 note 2} ‘Chairman's Statement’, Indeco Annual Report, 1973/74 (Lusaka, 1974), p. 9.

^{page 98 note 3} For example, see ‘Humanism and our Foreign Policy’, in Humanism Radio Commentaries, Numbers 1–42 (Lusaka, 1972).

^{page 99 note 1} Bank of Zambia Report for 1973 (Lusaka, 1974), p. 7.

^{page 99 note 2} Ibid.

^{page 99 note 3} Molteno, and Tordoff, , ‘Conclusion’, p. 391.Google Scholar

^{page 99 note 4} Meebelo, Henry S., Main Currents of Zambian Humanist Thought (Lusaka, 1973), pp. 77 and 92.Google Scholar

^{page 100 note 1} Ibid. p. 95. See also his analysis of Humanism as an ideology based on the ‘individual’ rather than the ‘people’: ‘The Concept of Man-Centredness in Zambian Humanism’, in The African Review, III, 4, 1973, pp. 559–75.

^{page 100 note 2} See Kandeke, Timothy K. (ed.), A Systematic Introduction to Zambian Humanism (Lusaka),Google Scholar forthcoming. Cf. Zulu, J. B., Zambian Humanism: some major spiritual and economic challenges (Lusaka, 1970);Google Scholar and Soremekun, Fola, ‘The Challenge of Nation-Building: neo-Humanism and politics in Zambia, 1967–1969’, in Genève-Afrique (Geneva), IX, I, 1970, pp. 3–41.Google Scholar

^{page 100 note 3} Molteno, Robert, ‘Zambian Humanism: the way ahead’, in The African Review, III, 4, 1973, p. 552.Google Scholar

^{page 101 note 1} Ibid. p. 553.

^{page 101 note 2} Molteno, and Tordoff, , ‘Conclusion’, p. 395.Google Scholar

^{page 101 note 3} Mulenga, N. Sefelino, ‘Humanism and the Logic of Self-Sufficiency’, Lusaka, 09 1973, pp. 9 and 10;Google Scholar reprinted in the Zambia Daily Mail, 30 and 31 January 1974.

^{page 101 note 4} Molteno, and Tordoff, , ‘Conclusion’, p. 398.Google Scholar

^{page 101 note 5} See The Rich and Poor Nations. Address by Dr Kaunda to the World Council of Churches, Sweden, July 1968 (Lusaka, 1971), pp. 7–8.

^{page 102 note 1} For an empirical investigation of Zambia's external behaviour, see Shaw, Timothy M., ‘The Foreign Policy of Zambia: an events analysis of a new state’, Canadian Political Science Association, Edmonton, 06 1975.Google Scholar

^{page 102 note 2} For a comprehensive account of the growth of manufacturing in Zambia, see Young, Alistair, Industrial Diversification in Zambia (New York, 1973).Google Scholar

^{page 102 note 3} Sklar, Richard L., ‘Zambia's Response to the Rhodesian Unilateral Declaration of Independence’, in Tordoff, (ed.), Politics in Zambia, p. 362.Google Scholar

^{page 102 note 4} See Shaw, Timothy M., ‘Southern Africa: co-operation and conflict in an international sub-system’, in The Journal of Modern African Studies, XII, 4, 12 1974, 633–55.CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 102 note 5} See Mtshali, B. V., ‘Zambia and the White South’, in Cervenka, Zdenek (ed.), Land-Locked Countries of Africa (Uppsala, 1973), pp. 288–93.Google Scholar

^{page 102 note 6} See Shaw, Timothy M., ‘South Africa's Military Capability and the Future of Race Relations’, in Mazrui, Ali A. and Patel, Hasu H. (eds.), Africa in World Affairs: the next thirty years (New York, 1973), pp. 37–61.Google Scholar

^{page 102 note 7} See statement by Greenwood Silwizya, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, that Zambia is not in détente with South Africa, but seeks dialogue, but seeks dialogue, in the Sunday Times of Zambia, 6 April 1975.

^{page 103 note 1} For a very comprehensive and sensitive account of the continuities and developments of Zambia's policies in Southern Africa, see Anglin, Douglas G., ‘Zambia and Southern African “Detente”’, in International Journal, XXX, 3, Summer 1975, pp. 471–503.Google Scholar

^{page 103 note 2} See Dear Mr. Vorster…Details of Exchanges between President Kaunda of Zambia and Prime Minister Vorster of South Africa (Lusaka, 1971).

^{page 103 note 3} See Nolutshungu, Sam C., South Africa in Africa: a study of ideology and foreign policy (New York, 1975).Google Scholar

^{page 103 note 4} Address by His Excellency the President of the Republic of Zambia, Dr. Kenneth D. Kaunda at the Unicersiv of Zambia concerning Southern Africa, 26 October 1974 (Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations, New York), p. 2.

^{page 103 note 5} Anglin, , ‘Zambia and Southern African “Detente”’, pp. 494–5.Google Scholar See also Barratt, John, ‘Detente in Southern Africa’, in The World Today (London), XXXIII, 3, 03 1975, pp. 120–30.Google Scholar

^{page 104 note 1} Cf. Anglin, , ‘Zambia and Southern African “Detente”’, p. 501.Google Scholar

^{page 104 note 2} For the text of the unity agreement among the four Zimbabwe nationalist groups under the A.N.C., see Anti-Apartheid News (London), February 1975, p. 6. For a thorough and informed analysis of its background and implications, see Mubako, Simbi, ‘The Quest for Unity in the Zimbabwe Liberation Movement’, in Issue (Waltham, Mass.), V, I, Spring 1975, pp. 7–17.Google Scholar

^{page 105 note 1} Editorial on ‘Hopes of Rhodesian Settlement’, in The Times (London), December 1974.

^{page 105 note 2} See Oudes, Bruce, ‘U.S.—African Relations: Kaunda's diplomatic offensive’, in Africa Report (New York), XX, 3, 05–06 1975, pp. 41–5.Google Scholar

^{page 105 note 3} Anglin, , ‘Zambia and Southern African “Detente”’, p. 502.Google Scholar

^{page 105 note 4} Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) Appeal to Progressive and Fraternal Organisations (Stockholm, 3 April 1975), p. 2.

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