Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T21:19:01.060Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Researching Africa and the offshore world

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 September 2022

Ricardo Soares De Oliveira*
Affiliation:
Department of Politics and International Relations, Oxford University, Manor Road, Oxford OX1 3UQ, UK

Abstract

One of the key features of today's global economy is an ‘offshore world’ of financial structures, institutions and techniques designed to provide secrecy, asset protection and tax exemption. While its worldwide impact is very significant, Africa is affected to an unusual extent by the strategies of tax avoidance/evasion, outward financial flows (both legal and illegal) and corruption enabled by the offshore world. This is corroborated by a number of quantitative studies of capital flight as well as by influential investigations such as the Pandora Papers, Panama Papers and Luanda Leaks. The offshore world's limited presence in the study of contemporary African politics, political economy and international relations is therefore striking. The purpose of this exploratory paper is to highlight this gap, provide a preliminary analysis, and suggest that the politics of African insertion in the global offshore economy merits more attention from scholars of African politics.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Ricardo Soares de Oliveira is Professor of the International Politics of Africa at the Department of Politics and International Relations and Co-Director of the Oxford Martin Programme on African Governance at the University of Oxford. Ricardo is thankful to the following for conversations and comments about earlier drafts of this paper: Wale Adebanwi, Christopher Clapham, Corentin Cohen, Stefan Dercon, Rebecca Engebretsen, Will Fitzgibbon, Emily Jones, Daniel Large, Peter Lewis, Nicolas Lippolis, Nelson Oppong, Ronen Palan, Didier Péclard, Anne Pitcher, Nicholas Shaxson, Jonny Steinberg, Ian Taylor, Miles Tendi, Olivier Vallée, Harry Verhoeven, Michael Watts and Toni Weis. He also thanks Alex Cooley, John Heathershaw, David Lewis, Tom Mayne, Casey Michel, Tena Prelec and Jason Sharman of the ACE Global Integrity project on money laundering and reputation laundering (2019–21). The Oxford Martin School staff has been enormously supportive since the start of the Programme on African Governance in 2017.

References

REFERENCES

Abugre, C., Cobham, A., Etter-Phoya, R., Lepissier, A., Meinzer, M., Monkam, N. & Mosioma, A.. 2019. Vulnerability and Exposure to Illicit Financial Flows risk in Africa. London: Tax Justice Network.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adeyemo, F. 2021. Banking Regulation in Africa: the case of Nigeria and other emerging economies. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajayi, S.I. & Ndikumana, L., eds. 2014. Capital Flight from Africa: causes, effects and policy issues. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akyeampong, E. 2015. ‘Diaspora and Drug Trafficking in West Africa: A Case Study of Ghana’, African Affairs 104, 416: 429–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akyeampong, E., Bates, R.H., Nunn, N. & Robinson, J., eds. 2012. Africa's Development in Historical Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Alden, C., Large, D. & Soares de Oliveira, R., eds. 2008. China Returns to Africa. London: Hurst.Google Scholar
Alicante, T. 2019. To Catch a Kleptocrat: llessons from the Biens Mal Acquis trial in France. Washington, DC: National Endowment for Democracy.Google Scholar
Andersen, J., Johannesen, N. & Rijkers, B.. 2020. ‘Elite capture of foreign aid: evidence from offshore bank accounts.’ Policy Research Working Paper 9150. Washington, DC: World Bank.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arrighi, G. 2002. ‘The African crisis: world systemic and regional aspects’, New Left Review 15, May–June.Google Scholar
Arriola, L. 2013. Multiethnic coalitions in Africa: Business Finance of Opposition Election Campaigns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashman, S., Fine, B. & Newman, S.. 2011. ‘Amnesty International: the nature, scale, and impact of capital flight from South Africa’, Journal of Southern African Studies 37, 1: 725.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Austin, R. 2008. ‘The “Reversal of Fortune” thesis and the compression of history: perspectives from African and Comparative History’, Journal of International Development 20: 9961027.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bank of Ghana. 2008. Offshore Banking and the Prospects for the Ghanaian Economy. Accra: Bank of Ghana Research Department.Google Scholar
Basson, A. & du Toit, P.. 2017. Enemy of the People: how Jacob Zuma stole South Africa and how the people fought back. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball.Google Scholar
Bayart, J-F. 2000. ‘Africa within the world: a history of extraversion’, African Affairs 99, 395: 217–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayart, J.-F., Ellis, S. & Hibou, B.. 1999. The Criminalization of the State in Africa. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Beaverstock, J., Hubbard, P. & Short, J.. 2004. ‘Getting away with it: exposing the geographies of the super-rich’, Geoforum 35: 401–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaverstock, J., Hall, S. & Wainwright, T.. 2013. ‘Servicing the super-rich: new financial elites and the rise of the private wealth management retail ecology’, Regional Studies 47, 6: 834–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behuria, P. 2020 a. ‘The political economics of Central Bank effectiveness: the case of National Bank of Rwanda.’ ESID working paper 151. Manchester: ESID, University of Manchester.Google Scholar
Behuria, P. 2020 b. ‘The ominous rise of African financial centres: the case of Mauritius’, ROAPE blog <https://roape.net/2020/12/01/the-ominous-rise-of-african-financial-centres-the-case-of-mauritius/> (accessed 23 September 2021).+(accessed+23+September+2021).>Google Scholar
Bird, L., Stanyard, J., Moonien, V. & Randrianrisoa, R.. 2021. Changing Tides: the evolving illicit drug trade in the western Indian Ocean. Geneva: Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime.Google Scholar
Blankenburg, S. & Khan, M.. 2012. ‘Governance and illicit flows’, in Reuter, P., ed. Draining Development: controlling flows of illicit funds from developing countries. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2168.Google Scholar
Boone, C. 2005. ‘State, capital, and the politics of banking reform in Africa’, Comparative Politics 37, 4: 401–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bracking, S. 2016. The Financialization of Power: how financiers rule Africa. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brautigam, D. 2009. The Dragon's Gift: the real story of China in Africa. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Brittain-Caitlin, W. 2005. Offshore: the dark side of the global economy. London: Picador.Google Scholar
Bruner, C. 2017. Re-imagining Offshore Finance: market-dominant small jurisdictions in a globalizing financial world. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burgis, T. 2015. The Looting Machine. London: William Collins.Google Scholar
Bullough, O. 2018. Moneyland. London: Profile Books.Google Scholar
Carter, B. 2018. ‘The rise of kleptocracy: autocrats versus activists in Africa’, Journal of Democracy 29, 1: 5468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castells, M. 2000. The Rise of the Network Society. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Christensen, J. 2009. ‘Africa's Bane: Tax havens, capital flight and the corruption interface.’ Working paper 1/2009. Madrid: Instituto Elcano.Google Scholar
Clapham, C. 1996. Africa and the International System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobham, A. 2014. Illicit Financial Flows: benefits and costs of the IFF targets for the post-2015 Development Agenda. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Consensus Centre.Google Scholar
Cobham, A. & Jansky, P.. 2020. Estimating Illicit Financial Flows: a critical guide to the data, methodologies, and findings. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, C. & Soares de Oliveira, R.. 2022. Authoritarian Reputation Laundering: the cases of Lisbon and Paris. National Endowment for Democracy, March.Google Scholar
Collier, P., Hoeffler, H. & Patillo, C.. 1998. ‘Flight capital as a portfolio choice’, World Bank Economic Review 15, 1: 5580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, F. 2001. ‘What is the concept of globalization good for? An African historian's perspective’, African Affairs 100, 399: 189213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, F. 2002. Africa Since 1940: the past of the present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooley, A. & Heathershaw, J.. 2017. Dictators without Borders: power and money in Central Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Cooley, A., Heathershaw, J. & Soares de Oliveira, R.. Forthcoming. ‘Transnational Uncivil Society: A Framework for Discussion.’Google Scholar
Cortez, E., Orre, A., Fael, B., Nhamirre, B., Banze, C., Mapisse, I., Harnack, K. & Reite, T.. 2021. Costs and Consequences of the Hidden Debt Scandal of Mozambique. Maputo: Centro de Integridade Pública.Google Scholar
Dafe, F. 2019. ‘Fuelled power: oil, financiers, and Central Bank policy in Nigeria’, New Political Economy 24, 5: 641–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dafe, F. 2020. ‘Ambiguity in international finance and the spread of financial norms: the localization of financial inclusion in Kenya and Nigeria’, Review of International Political Economy 27, 3: 500–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damgaard, J., Elkjaer, T. & Johannesen, N.. 2018. ‘Piercing the veil’, Finance and Development 55, 2: 50–3.Google Scholar
Desai, M., Fritz Foley, C. & Hines, J. Jr. 2006. ‘The demand for tax haven operations’, Journal of Public Economics 90: 513–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dezalay, S. 2020. ‘Le barreau ‘africain’ de Paris: entre big bang sur le marché du droit des affaires et sillons d'empire’, Cultures et Conflits 3, 6793.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobler, G. & Kesselring, R.. 2019. ‘Swiss extractivism: Switzerland's role in Zambia's Copper Sector’, Journal of Modern African Studies 57, 2: 223–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, S. 1996. ‘Africa and international corruption: the strange case of South Africa and Seychelles’, African Affairs 95, 379: 165–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, S. 2016. This Present Darkness: a history of Nigerian organized crime. London: Hurst.Google Scholar
Ellis, S. & MacGaffey, J.. 1996. ‘Research on sub-Saharan Africa's unrecorded international trade: some methodological and conceptual problems’, African Studies Review 39, 2: 1941.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engebretsen, R. & Soares de Oliveira, R.. 2020. ‘The political economy of banking regulation in Angola and the role of global banking standards’, in Jones, E., ed. The Politics of Banking Regulation in Developing Countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ennes Ferreira, M. & Soares de Oliveira, R.. 2019. ‘The political economy of banking in Angola’, African Affairs 118, 470: 4974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erie, M. 2020. ‘The new legal hubs: the emergent landscape of international commercial dispute resolution’, Virginia Journal of International Law 59, 30: 225–98.Google Scholar
Ferguson, J. 2007. Global Shadows. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Fernandez, R., Hofman, A. & Aalbers, M.. 2016. ‘London and New York as a safe deposit box for the transnational wealth elite’, Environment and Planning 48, 12: 2443–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Financial Action Task Force. 2020. ‘Anti-Money Laundering and counter-terrorists financing measures: United Arab Emirates: Mutual Evaluation Report.’Google Scholar
Findley, M., Nielson, D. & Sharman, J., eds. 2014. Global Shell Games: experiments in transnational relations, crime and terrorism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzgibbon, W. 2019. ‘Island: leak reveals how Mauritius siphons tax from poor nations to benefit elites’, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, <https://www.icij.org/investigations/mauritius-leaks/treasure-island-leak-reveals-how-mauritius-siphons-tax-from-poor-nations-to-benefit-elites/>..>Google Scholar
Fitzgibbon, W. 2020. ‘Luanda Leaks sealed new Cape Verde banking law, minister says’, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, https://www.icij.org/investigations/luanda-leaks/luanda-leaks-sealed-new-cape-verde-banking-law-minister-says/Google Scholar
Fjelstad, O.-H. et al. 2017. Lifting the Veil of Secrecy: perspectives on international taxation and capital flight from Africa. Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute.Google Scholar
Frantz, E. 2018. ‘Elections and capital flight: evidence from Africa’, International Studies Quarterly 62: 160–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillies, A. 2019. Crude Intentions. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gillies, A. 2020. ‘Corruption trends during Africa's oil boom, 2005–2014’, Extractive Industries and Society 7, 4: 1171–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillies, A., Guéniat, M. & Kummer, L.. 2014. Big Spenders: Swiss Trading Companies, African Oil and the Risks of Opacity. Berne Declaration/NRGI.Google Scholar
Glaser, A. & Smith, S.. 1992. Ces Messieurs Afrique. Paris: Calmann-Levy.Google Scholar
Glenny, M. 2008. McMafia: crime without frontiers. London: Bodley Head.Google Scholar
Gueye, O. 2018. ‘African history and global history: revisiting paradigms’, in Beckert, S. & Sachsenmaier, D., eds. Global History, Globally: research and practice around the world. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 83108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanieh, A. 2018. Money, Markets and Monarchies: The Gulf Cooperation Council and the political economy of the contemporary Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrington, B. 2016. Capital Without Borders: wealth managers and the one percent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hearson, M. 2015. Tax Treaties in sub-Saharan Africa: a critical review. Nairobi: Tax Justice Network.Google Scholar
Heggstad, K. & Fjelstad, O.H.. 2010. How Banks assist capital flight from Africa: a literature review. Bergen: Ch. Michelsen Institute.Google Scholar
Helleiner, E. 1994. States and the re-emergence of global finance: from Bretton Woods to the 1990s. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Henry, J. 2012. The Price of Offshore Revisited. London: Tax Justice Network.Google Scholar
Hibou, B. 2006. La force de l'obéissance: économie politique de la répression en Tunisie. Paris: La Découverte.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopkins, A.G. 2019. An Economic History of West Africa. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoong, N.W. 2012. Singapore, the Energy Economy: from the first refinery to the end of cheap oil, 1960–2010. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Jones, C., Temouri, Y. & Cobham, A.. 2018. ‘Tax haven networks and the role of the big 4 accountancy firms’, Journal of World Business 53: 177–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, E., ed. 2020. The Politics of Banking Regulation in Developing Countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kar, D. & Cartwright-Smith, D.. 2010. ‘Illicit Financial Flows from Africa: Hidden Resources for Development’, Global Financial Integrity.Google Scholar
Khan, M., Andreoni, A. & Roy, P.. 2019. Illicit Financial Flows: Theory and Measurement Challenges. ACE SOAS Working Paper 10.Google Scholar
Kroll Associates. 2017. ‘Independent audit related to loans contracted by Proindicus S.A., EMATUM S.A. and Mozambique Asset Management.’ Report prepared for the office of the Public Prosecutor of the Republic of Mozambique, 23 June.Google Scholar
Lewis, P. & Stein, H.. 1997. ‘Shifting fortunes: the political economy of financial liberalization in Nigeria’, World Development 25, 1: 522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopes, C. & Soares de Oliveira, R.. 2021. ‘Africa must lead on capital flight’, Project Syndicate 3 November.Google Scholar
Mailey, J.R. 2015. The Anatomy of the Resource Curse: Predatory Investment in Africa's Extractive Industries. Washington, DC: National Defense University.Google Scholar
Manning, P. 2015. ‘Locating Africans on a world stage: a problem in world history’, Journal of World History 26, 30: 605–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marchal, R. 1997. ‘Doubaï: le développement d'une cité-entrepôt dans le Golfe’, Etudes du CERI 28.Google Scholar
Marriage, Z. 2018. ‘The elephant in the room: offshore companies, liberalisation, and extension of presidential power in DR Congo’, Third World Quarterly 39, 5: 889905.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maurer, B. 2007. ‘Incalculable payments: money, scale, and the South African offshore grey money amnesty’, African Studies Review 50, 20: 125–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazzitelli, A. 2007. ‘Transnational organised crime in West Africa: the additional challenge’, International Affairs 83, 6: 1071–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIntosh, R. & Cissé, M.. 2020. ‘On the shoreline of history: the state of archaeology in the Sahel’, in LaGamma, A., ed. Sahel: art and empires on the shores of the Sahara. New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 4671.Google Scholar
Michel, C. & Soares de Oliveira, R.. 2020. ‘BCCI: the dictator-run bank that tells the story of America's foreign corruption’, Foreign Policy, 7 July.Google Scholar
Moore, M. 2012. ‘The practical political economy of illicit flows’, in Reuter, P., ed. Draining Development: controlling flows of illicit funds from developing countries. Washington, DC: World Bank, 457–82.Google Scholar
Myburgh, P-L. 2017. The Republic of Gupta: a story of state capture. Johannesburg: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Nesvetailova, A. 2012. ‘Money and finance in a globalized economy’, in Palan, R., ed. Global Political Economy: contemporary theories. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Nesvetailova, A. 2020. ‘Where Wild West met Wild East? Understanding the special place of the Bahamas in Russia's Offshore network.’ Paper presented at the First Empirical AML conference, Nassau, 22–23 January.Google Scholar
Nesvetailova, A., Palan, R., Petersen, H. and Phillips, R.. 2021. ‘IFFs and Commodity Trading: Opportunities for identifying risks in commodity traders’ financial conduct using groups’ corporate filings.’ Working Paper. Paris: OECD. <https://researchcentres.city.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/583565/IFFs-AND-COMMODITY-TRADING-final-oct-2020-.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Ndikumana, L. & Boyce, J.. 2003. ‘Public debts and private. assets: explaining capital flight from sub-Saharan African countries’, World Development 31, 1: 107–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ndikumana, L. & Boyce, J.. 2018. ‘Magnitude and mechanisms of capital flight from Angola, Cote d'Ivoire and South Africa.’ Working paper. Amherst: Political Economy Research Institute.Google Scholar
Ndikumana, L. & Sarr, M.. 2019. ‘Capital flight, foreign direct investment and natural resources in Africa’, Resources Policy 63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
OECD. 2017. Illicit Financial Flows: the economy of illicit trade in West Africa. Paris: OECD.Google Scholar
Ogle, V. 2017. ‘Archipelago capitalism: tax havens, offshore money and the state, 1950s–1970s’, American Historical Review, December: 1431–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogle, V. 2020. ‘Funk money: the end of empires, the expansion of tax havens and decolonization as an economic and financial event’, Past and Present 249, 1: 213–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, M. 2020. Dubai Property: an oasis for Nigeria's corrupt political elites. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar
Page, M. & Vittori, J., eds. 2020. Dubai's Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.Google Scholar
Palan, R. 2005. The Offshore World: sovereign markets virtual places, and nomad millionaires. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Palan, R., Murphy, R. & Chavagneux, C.. 2010. Tax Havens: how globalisation really works. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Péan, P. 1983. Affaires Africaines. Paris: Fayard.Google Scholar
Péclard, D., Kernen, A. and Khan-Mohammad, G.. 2020. ‘Etats d’émergence: le gouvernement de la croissance et du development en Afrique’, Critique Internationale 89: 927.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perdriel-Vaissière, M. 2017. France's Bien Mal Acquis Affair: lessons from a decade of legal struggle. New York, NY: Open Society Foundations.Google Scholar
Pitcher, A. 2002. Transforming Mozambique: the politics of privatization, 1975–2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitcher, A. 2017. ‘Entrepreneurial governance and the expansion of public investment funds in Africa’, in Harbeson, J. & Rothchild, D., eds. Africa in World Politics: constructing political and economic order. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 80102.Google Scholar
Plank, D. 1993. ‘Aid, debt and the end of sovereignty: Mozambique and its donors’, Journal of Modern African Studies 31, 3: 407–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Platt, S. 2015. Criminal Capital: how the finance industry facilitates crime. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Prelec, T. & Soares de Oliveira, R.. Forthcoming. ‘Enabling African loots: tracking the laundering of Nigerian kleptocrats’ ill-gotten gains in western financial centres’.Google Scholar
Prelec, T., Michel, C. & Mayne, T.. 2022. ‘Exposing kleptocracy: why we need more – and better – collaboration among academics, journalists and anti-corruption campaigners’, in A. Pitcher & R. Soares de Oliveira, eds. Special Issue on Authoritarian Power and the Global Economy, APSA Democracy and Autocracy Newsletter, March.Google Scholar
Public Eye. 2017. Gunvor au Congo. Lausanne: Public Eye.Google Scholar
Public Eye. 2020. Trade Finance Demystified: the intricacies of commodity trade finance. Lausanne: Public Eye.Google Scholar
Reno, W. 1999. Warlord Politics and African States. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Ribadu, N. 2016. The Impact of Panama Papers on Africa.Google Scholar
Robertson, J. 2020. ‘Global networks on the way up and on the way down: lessons from the rise and fall of the Seychelles as an offshore financial centre’, Global Networks 21, 4: 631–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, J. 2021. ‘Global financial networks confront headwinds: China's shifting offshore relationship with the British Virgin Islands’, Pacific Review 34, 23: 177205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sayne, A., Gillies, A. & Katsouris, C.. 2015. Inside NNPC Oil Sales: a case for Nigerian reform. New York, NY: NRGI.Google Scholar
Sharife, K. 2010. ‘Flying a questionable flag: Liberia's lucrative shipping industry’, World Policy Journal 27, 4: 111–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharman, J. 2010. ‘Offshore and the new international political economy’, Review of International Political Economy 17, 1: 119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharman, J. 2012. ‘Chinese capital flows and offshore financial centres’, Pacific Review 25, 3: 317–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharman, J. 2017. The Despot's Guide to Wealth Management. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharman, J. & Chaikin, D.. 2009. Corruption and Money Laundering: a symbiotic relationship. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sharman, J. & Cooley, A.. 2017. ‘Transnational corruption and the globalized individual’, Perspectives on Politics 15, 3: 732–53.Google Scholar
Shaxson, N. 2011. Treasure Islands. London: Vintage.Google Scholar
Shaxson, N. 2021. ‘Oil and Capital Flight: The Case of Angola.’ Working Paper 534. Amherst, MA: Political Economy Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Amherst.Google Scholar
Shaw, M. 2017. Africa's Changing Place in the Global Criminal Economy. ISS/ENACT.Google Scholar
Siddiqua, A. 2016. Military Inc.: inside Pakistan's military economy. London: Pluto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Signé, L., Sow, M. & Madden, P.. 2020. ‘Illicit financial flows in Africa: drivers, destinations and policy options.’ Policy brief, March. Washington, DC: Africa Growth Initiative at Brookings.Google Scholar
Sikka, P. & Willmott, H.. 2010. ‘The dark side of transfer pricing: its role in tax avoidance and wealth retentiveness’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 21: 342–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simo, D. 2018. ‘Writing world history in Africa: opportunities, constraints and challenges’, in Beckert, S. & Sachsenmaier, D., eds. Global History, Globally: research and practice around the world. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 235–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siu, H. 2019. ‘Financing China's engagement in Africa: new state spaces among a variegated landscape’, Africa 89, 4: 638–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soares de Oliveira, R. 2007. ‘Business success, Angola-style: postcolonial politics and the rise and rise of SONANGOL’, Journal of Modern African Studies 45, 4: 287314.Google Scholar
Soares de Oliveira, R. 2015. Magnificent and Beggar Land: Angola since the civil war. London: Hurst.Google Scholar
Soares de Oliveira, R. & Vallée, O.. 2021. ‘The Republic of Congo is a Global Dark Debt Pioneer’, Foreign Policy, 21 May.Google Scholar
Strange, S. 1998. Mad Money. Manchester: Manchester University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Surak, K. 2020. ‘Millionaire mobility and the sale of citizenship’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 47, 1: 166–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, I. 2009. China's New Role in Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Tax Justice Network. 2013. ‘Narrative Report on United Arab Emirates (Dubai).’ London: Tax Justice Network.Google Scholar
The Sentry. 2020. ‘Looted funds used to buy Africa real estate’ (July).Google Scholar
Torslov, T., Wier, L. & Zucman, G.. 2020. ‘The missing profits of nations’ <http://gabriel-zucman.eu/files/TWZ2020.pdf>..>Google Scholar
Uche, C. 2010. ‘Promoting offshore banking in Nigeria: matters arising’, Journal of International Banking Law and Regulation 25, 9: 450–9.Google Scholar
UNCTAD. 2016. ‘Trade misinvoicing in primary commodities in developing countries: the cases of Chile, Cote d'Ivoire, Nigeria South Africa and Zambia.’ Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.Google Scholar
UNCTAD. 2020. Tackling Illicit Financial Flows for Sustainable Development in Africa. Geneva: UNCTAD.Google Scholar
UNECA. 2015. ‘Track it! Stop it! Get it! Report of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa.’ Commissioned by the AU/ECA Conference of Ministers of Finance, Planning and Economic Development.Google Scholar
United Nations Security Council. 2002. Final Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and other forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of Congo. New York: UN.Google Scholar
Vallée, O. 2008. ‘Du palais au banques: La reproduction élargie du capital indigène en Angola’, Politique Africaine 110: 2146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vallée, O. 2011. ‘L’économique africain saisi par la finance’, Politique Africaine 124: 6786.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van de Walle, N. 2002. African economies and the politics of permanent crisis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
van Fossen, A. 2012. Tax Havens and Sovereignty in the Pacific Islands. St Lucia: University of Queensland Press.Google Scholar
Vlcek, W. 2011. ‘Offshore finance in Ghana: why not?’, Review of African Political Economy 38, 127: 143–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waris, A. 2014. ‘The creation of international financial centres in Africa: the case of Kenya.’ U4 Brief. Bergen: Ch. Michelsen Institute.Google Scholar
Waris, A. & Seabrooke, L.. 2017. ‘Arrested development in Africa's global wealth chains’, in Ashimzade, N. & Epifantseva, Y., eds. The Routledge Companion to Tax Avoidance Research. London: Routledge, 267–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weis, T. 2020. ‘Ethiopia: raising a vegetarian tiger?’, in Jones, E., ed. The Politics of Banking Regulation in Developing Countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 327–48.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2013. Pirate Trails: Tracking the Illicit Financial Flows from Pirate Activities off the Horn of Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Zarate, J. 2013. Treasury's Wars: the unleashing of a new era of financial warfare. New York, NY: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Zoromé, A. 2007. ‘Concept of offshore financial centres: in search of an operation definition.’ IMF Working Paper WP/07/87. Washington, DC: IMF.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zucman, G. 2015. The Hidden Wealth of Nations: the scourge of tax havens. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar