Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T14:22:17.097Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ethnic Inequalities in Kenya

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 November 2008

Donald Rothchild
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

‘The time has come’, writes James S. Coleman, ‘to recognize the professional respectability as well as the practical essentiality of the ancient and honorable hybrid discipline of political economy.’1 Such an approach to the study of developing countries is as timely as it is prudent. This article attempts to apply the approach of political economy to the question of elite recruitment, the process by which individuals are selected and assigned to strategic, political, and administrative roles.2 It seeks to examine recruitment as a conflict of interests facing decision- makers in Kenya. Such a task seems most meaningfully handled by enlarging the boundaries under examination to include recruitment of the élite who are to manage Kenya's economy as well as its political structure. This method of analysis leads almost inevitably, under Kenyan circumstances, to a discussion of the crucial issue of resource allocation, for the priorities established in expenditure patterns are of direct relevance to the opportunity for members of various ethnic groups to compete in the market place for political and economic positions.

Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 7 , Issue 4 , December 1969 , pp. 689 - 711
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1969

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Page 689 note 1 ‘The Resurrection of Political Economy’, in Mawazo (Kampala), I, 1, 06 1967, p. 31.Google Scholar

Page 689 note 2 For an analysis of the concept of élite recruitment, see Seligman, Lester G., ‘Elite Recruitment and Political Development,’ in Finkle, Jason L. and Gable, Richard W. (eds.), Political Development and Social Change (New York, 1968), pp. 328–38Google Scholar, and Edinger, Lewis J. and Searing, Donald D., ‘Social Background in Elite Analysis: a methodological inquiry’, in American Political Science Review (Menasha, Wisconsin LXI, 2, 06 1967, p. 428.Google Scholar

Page 691 note 1 National Assembly Debates (Nairobi), XIV, sixth session, 26 02 1968, col. 3.Google Scholar

Page 691 note 2 Republic of Kenya, Statement on Application of the New Immigration Act in Relation to ‘Work Permits’ and Kenyanization by Moi, Hon D. T. arap (Nairobi, 1968), p. 3.Google Scholar

Page 692 note 1 Kenyans have been quick to relate educational opportunity to élite recruitment. Thus the writer of one letter observes, ‘we should appreciate the fact that all tribes are not alike in educational fields. You may probably agree with me that some tribes are lagging behind. Hence, it will not be surprising to perceive that some advanced tribes will not be debarred from playing a bigger role in the public service.’ East African Standard (Nairobi), 3 04 1968.Google Scholar

Page 692 note 2 The value of the statistics in Table 2 as an index of regional distribution of opportunities is reduced by virtue of the fact that many of the schools recruit from all over Kenya.

Page 692 note 3 Source: Republic of Kenya, Kenya Education Commission Report, Part II (Nairobi, 1965), p. 9.Google Scholar

Page 692 note 4 Source: Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Education Triennial Survey, 1964–1966 and Annual Report for 1966 (Nairobi, 1967), p. 77.Google Scholar

Page 693 note 1 This information appears in Peter Marris, ‘Entrepreneurship and Development: a study of African businesses in Kenya’ (draft copy), and is used with his permission.

Page 693 note 2 Source: Republic of Kenya, Development Plan, 1966–1970 (Nairobi, 1966), p. 29.Google Scholar

Page 694 note 1 Republic of Kenya, High-Level Manpower Requirements and Resources in Kenya, 1964–1970, prepared under the direction of Davis, Calvin F. (Nairobi, 1965), pp. 28–30.Google Scholar

Page 694 note 2 Republic of Kenya, Statistical Abstract, 1967 (Nairobi, 1967), p. 153.Google Scholar

Page 694 note 3 Development Plan, 1966–1970, p. 44.

Page 694 note 4 Registrar-General, , Annual Report, 1964 (Nairobi, 1965), p. 13.Google Scholar

Page 695 note 1 Source: compiled from the Kenya Registrar-General's Annual Reports.

Page 695 note 2 Because wheat is normally grown on large, mechanised farms of 1,000 acres or more, it has long been regarded as a European undertaking. By 1968, however, African farmers, many of them planting as little as 15 or 20 acres of wheat, provided 22 per cent of the total production of this commodity. Dalling, John, ‘Wheat Grows into a Surplus Crop’, in Sunday Nation (Nairobi), 9 06 1968.Google Scholar

Page 695 note 3 For a description of colonial policies and practices in the field of education, see Colony and Protectorate of Kenya, Report on Asian and European Education in Kenya, 1958 (Nairobi, 1958).Google Scholar

Page 696 note 1 Government of Kenya, Kenya Education Commission Report, Part I (Nairobi, 1964), pp. 21–2.Google Scholar

Page 696 note 2 Dissatisfaction with non-citizen predominance in the higher levels is noticeable. In a public speech, C. G. Mama asserted that the Kenya Government was concerned about the rather high proportion of sixth-form places being taken by non-citizens. East African Standard, 27 October 1967.

Page 696 note 3 Results are based upon 653 completed questionnaires out of a total sample of 730. Refusals were recorded for 50 interviews, and 27 interviews were rejected as incomplete or dishonest. Those interviewed had completed primary school or more; the place of interview was divided roughly evenly among urban (Nairobi), pen-urban, and rural areas. For a companion piece based on the same survey, see Rothchild, Donald, ‘Kenya's Minorities and the African Crisis over Citizenship’, in Race (London), IX, 4, 04 1968, pp. 421–37.Google Scholar

Page 697 note 1 Several percentages, in this and the tables which follow, do not add upto 100 because of rounding.

Page 697 note 2 The 653 individuals were permitted more than one response.

Page 698 note 1 The 1962 population census of Africans by tribe shows the following results:

Page 698 note 2 Parliamentary spokesmen for tribal minorities have made many appeals for ameniti and agricultural and industrial improvement schemes. See, for example, National Assembly Debates, XI, fifth session, 21 02 1967, cols. 219–20Google Scholar; X, fourth session, 6 October 1966, col. 472; and XIV, sixth session, 29 March 1968, cols. 1329–52.

Page 699 note 1 See note to Table 6.

Page 699 note 2 ‘The Civil Service as it stands at present is divided up into two groups, you will find that most of the jobs in the Civil Service are going to two tribes, the Kikuyu and the Luo.’ Tsalwa, A. R., Senate Debates (Nairobi), I, first session, 25 07 1963, col. 495.Google Scholar

Page 699 note 3 ‘I abhor the present policy of “Africanisation” which is just a synonym for “Kikuyuisation” in its application.’ Letter to The Reporter (Nairobi), 19 05 1967.Google Scholar

Page 700 note 1 Oduya, G. F. O., National Assembly Debates, XIV, sixth session, 27 02 1968, col. 66.Google Scholar

Page 700 note 2 Daily Nation, 10 December 1966.

Page 700 note 3 Senate Debates, IV, first Session, 21 07 1965, co1. 464.Google Scholar

Page 700 note 4 House of Representatives Debates, x, fourth session. 14 10 1966, cols. 879–80Google Scholar. For a similar charge by Senator Chilo, O. M., see East African Standard, 14 10 1966.Google Scholar

Page 700 note 5 House of Representatives Debates, x, fourth session, 14 10, 1966, cols. 883–4Google Scholar. See also cols. 1385–6.

Page 700 note 6 Ibid. 11 October 1966, col. 636.

Page 700 note 7 For example, Ibid. 30 September 1966, cols. 259 and 270–1. Similar charges have even been made of the recruitment policies of the East African Common Services Organisation. See Proceedings of the Central Legislative Assembly Debates (Nairobi), III, 2, 18 08 1964, cols. 529–30.Google Scholar

Page 700 note 8 National Assembly Debates, XIV, sixth session, 29 03 1968, col. 1303.Google Scholar

Page 701 note 1 Motion presented by Luke Obok, ibid.

Page 701 note 2 Ibid. cols. 1305 and 1310. In an earlier debate, the Assistant Minister for Labour, L. W. Oselu-Nyalick, declared that if the present trend were not changed, Kenya might be headed towards ‘another Biafra’. Ibid. 28 February 1968, col. 110.

Page 702 note 1 Khaoya, J. W., National Assembly Debates, XIII, fifth session, 7 11 1967, col. 1803.Google Scholar

Page 702 note 2 The less educated members of the sample tended to be more positive in their response to this question than did those who had achieved a higher level of formal education. The positive answers, grouped by intensity of agreement, were as follows:

Page 703 note 1 Percentages agreeing with the question were Kikuyu, 23; Luo, 37; Luhya, 38; and Kamba, 47. A separate study conducted by Peter Marris shows, too, that African businessmen think Europeans generally helpful toward African advancement, Asians not so. They are bitter about the unwillingness of Asians to help Africans, either by training or in business.

Page 704 note 1 Kenya Newsletter (Nairobi), 15 12 1967Google Scholar. The President further declared, ‘All major decisions of the Government are now made by our sons and daughters. Despite this rapid Africanisation, there has been no fall in the standards of efficiency.’

Page 704 note 2 National Assembly Debates, XIV, sixth session, 27 02 1968, col. 3.Google Scholar

Page 704 note 3 Kibaki, Mwai, House of Representatioes Debates, x, fourth session, 11 10 1966, col. 655.Google Scholar

Page 705 note 1 National Assembly Debates, XIV, sixth session,03 1968, col. 561.Google Scholar

Page 705 note 2 Mbiyu Koinange, Minister of State, President's Office, ibid. March 1968, col. 1316. The former head of the civil service, Duncan N. Ndegwa, was equally explicit on this point: ‘The tribal imbalances in the Public Service and elsewhere will be adjusted only by the development of equal educational opportunities.’ See ‘Loyalty and Dedication in the Public Service’, (Kabete, Kenya Institute of Administration, 5 January 1967, mimeo), p. 20.

Page 705 note 3 Ndegwa, op. cit. p. 20.

Page 705 note 4 Kibaki, Mwai, Howe of Representatives Debates, X, fourth session, 11 10 1966, col. 662.Google Scholar

Page 705 note 5 Kikuyu initiative and industriousness have frequently been noted by non-Kikuyu leaders. E.g. Ibid. 28 January 1966, col. 1394; National Assembly Debates, XIV, sixth session, 7 03 1968, cols. 561–2Google Scholar; and East African Standard, 22 February 1967.

Page 706 note 1 Roberts, John S., A Land Full of People: life in Kenya today (New York, 1967), Pp. 72–3.Google Scholar

Page 706 note 2 ‘It is not the Government's intention or policy to promote or appoint people in the Public Service on the grounds of their tribes or tribal connections.’ Nyamweya, J., Minister of State, President's Office, House of Representatives Debates, X, fourth session, 14 10 1966, col. 891.Google Scholar

Page 706 note 3 Republic of Kenya, African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya (Nairobi, 1965), p. 47.Google Scholar

Page 706 note 4 Development Plan, 1964–1970, p. 35.Google Scholar

Page 706 note 5 National Assembly Debates, XIV, sixth session, 26 02 1968, col. 3Google Scholar. For a follow-up statement, see the remarks of the senior planning officer with the Ministry of Economic Planning and Development, Ogola, B. H., to the Western Provincial Planning Committee, East African Standard, 12 04 1968.Google Scholar

Page 706 note 6 House of Representatives Debates, x, fourth session 11 10 1966, cols. 653–4Google Scholar. See also National Assembly Debates, XIII, fifth session, 17 10 1967, cols. 803–6.Google Scholar

Page 707 note 1 East African Standard, 10 February 1967.

Page 707 note 2 Ibid. 27 February 1967; Kenya Newsletter, 1 March 1967.

Page 707 note 3 National Assembly Debates, XIII, fifth session, 18 12 1967, col. 3461Google Scholar. The following year the Nairobi City Council raised its rates by more than one-third to cover an estimated deficit of £570,000. Councillors passed a resolution urging the Government to rescind its decision on reallocating part of the city's G.P.T. revenues to subsidise other councils. East African Standard, 3 December 1968.

Page 707 note 4 Aristotle, , Politics, trans. by Rackham, H. (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), p. 511.Google Scholar

Page 707 note 5 Charles Njonjo, quoted in Daily Nation, 20 September 1967; Tom Mboya, letter to the editor, Daily Nation, 6 February 1967; and African Socialism, pp. 28 and 51. For a radio commentary along these lines on ‘Voice of Kenya’, see Daily Nation, 11 January 1969.

Page 708 note 1 Mathenge went on: ‘This means that 99 per cent of the civil servants and other people will be black people’, Senate Debates, I, first session, 25 07 1963, col. 518.Google Scholar

Page 708 note 2 No doubt, as Daniel P. Moynihan has observed, ethnic quotas can cause hardship for certain groups: ‘If ethnic quotas are to be imposed on American universities and similarly quasi-public institutions, the Jews will be almost driven out. They are not 3 per cent of the population.’ New Tork Times, 5 June 1968.

Page 708 note 3 Legislative Council Debates, LXXXVI, fourth session, 27 10 1960, col. 439.Google Scholar

Page 708 note 4 National Assembly Debates, XIV, fifth session, 20 07 1967, col. 2503.Google Scholar

Page 708 note 5 House of Representatives Debates, x, fourth session, 14 12 1966, cols. 2784–5.Google Scholar

Page 708 note 6 National Assembly Debates, XIII, fifth session, 6 11 1967, col. 1765.Google Scholar

Page 709 note 1 Bendix, Reinhard, Nation-Building and Citizenship (New York, 1964), p. 130.Google Scholar

Page 709 note 2 National Assembly Debates, XIII, fifth session, 7 07 1967, col 1977.Google Scholar

Page 709 note 3 East Africa Journal (Nairobi), IV, I, 04 1967, p. 42.Google Scholar

Page 710 note 1 Cf. Halpern, Manfred, ‘Conflict, Violence, and the Dialectics of Modernization’, a paper presented to the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., 09 1968.Google Scholar