Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-19T04:48:17.713Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The relationship between workplace incivility and depersonalization towards co-workers: Roles of job-related anxiety, gender, and education

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 November 2019

Dirk De Clercq Open the ORCID record for Dirk De Clercq [Opens in a new window] ,
Inam Ul Haq  and
Muhammad Umer Azeem
Dirk De Clercq*
Affiliation:
Goodman School of Business, Brock University, St. Catharines, OntarioL2S 3A1, Canada
Inam Ul Haq
Affiliation:
School of Business, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
Muhammad Umer Azeem
Affiliation:
School of Business and Economics, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
*
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study contributes to management scholarship by unpacking the relationship between employees' exposure to workplace incivility and their exhibition of depersonalization towards co-workers, according to the mediating effect of job-related anxiety and the moderating effects of gender and education. Time-lagged data from employees in Pakistani organizations show that an important reason workplace incivility enhances depersonalization towards co-workers is that employees feel anxious about their jobs. This mediating role of job-related anxiety is particularly salient among male and higher-educated employees, possibly because they suffer from resource losses in the form of dignity threats when they are treated with disrespect. For organizations, this study accordingly pinpoints a key mechanism by which disrespectful workplace treatment can escalate into depersonalization towards co-workers (enhanced job-related feelings of anxiety), as well as how the strength of this mechanism might depend on individual factors.

Keywords

workplace incivilitydepersonalizationjob-related anxietygendereducation levelconservation of resources theory
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 26 , Issue 2 , March 2020 , pp. 219 - 240
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abbas, M., Raja, U., Darr, W., & Bouckenooghe, D. (2014). Combined effects of perceived politics and psychological capital on job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and performance. Journal of Management, 40, 1813–1830.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abubakar, A. M. (2018). Linking work-family interference, workplace incivility, gender and psychological distress. Journal of Management Development, 37, 226–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abubakar, A. M., Namin, B. H., Harazneh, I., Arasli, H., & Tunç, T. (2017). Does gender moderates the relationship between favoritism/nepotism, supervisor incivility, cynicism and workplace withdrawal: A neural network and SEM approach. Tourism Management Perspectives, 23, 129–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ackroyd, S., & Thompson, P. (1999). Organizational misbehavior. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Adil, M. S. (2016). Impact of change readiness on commitment to technological change, focal and discretionary behaviors. Journal of Organizational Change, 29, 222–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ali, A. A., Ryan, A. M., Lyons, B. J., Ehrhart, M. G., & Wessel, J. L. (2016). The long road to employment: Incivility experienced by job seekers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101, 333–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ali, F., & Syed, J. (2017). From rhetoric to reality: A multilevel analysis of gender equality in Pakistani organizations. Gender, Work and Organization, 24, 472–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ali, S. (2014). Education policy and social justice: Exploring possibilities within education policy context of Pakistan. Pakistan Perspectives, 19, 1–10.Google Scholar
Altunoglu, A. E., & Sarpkaya, P. (2012). Effects of burnout and job satisfaction on intention to leave. African Journal of Business Management, 6, 8564–8571.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychology Bulletin, 1033, 411–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersson, L. M., & Pearson, C. M. (1999). Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace. Academy of Management Review, 24, 452–472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arabaci, I. B. (2010). The effects of depersonalization and organizational cynicism levels on the job satisfaction of educational inspectors. African Journal of Business Management, 4, 2802–2811.Google Scholar
Baba, V. V., & Jamal, M. (1991) reutilizations of job context and job content as related to employee's quality of working life: A study of psychiatric nurses. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 12, 379–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bachrach, D. G., Powell, B. C., Collins, B. J., & Richey, R. G. (2006). Effects of task interdependence on the relationship between helping behavior and group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1396–1405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.Google Scholar
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beattie, L., & Griffin, B. (2014). Accounting for within-person differences in how people respond to daily incivility at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 87, 625–644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, T. E. (2005). Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 8, 274–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bibi, Z., Karim, J., & Din, S. (2013). Workplace incivility and counterproductive work behavior: Moderating role of emotional intelligence. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 28, 317–334.Google Scholar
Boles, J. S., Dean, D. H., Ricks, J. M., Short, J. C., & Wang, G. (2000). The dimensionality of the Maslach Burnout Inventory across small business owners and educators. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 56, 12–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchmann, C., & Hannum, E. (2001). Education and stratification in developing countries: A review of theories and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 77–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charoensukmongkol, P., Moqbel, M., & Gutierrez-Wirsching, S. (2016). The role of co-worker and supervisor support on job burnout and job satisfaction. Journal of Advances in Management Research, 13, 4–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, Y., Ferris, D. L., Kwan, H. K., Yan, M., Zhou, M., & Hong, Y. (2013). Self-loves’ lost labor: A self-enhancement model of workplace incivility. Academy of Management Journal, 56, 1199–1219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cho, M., Bonn, M. A., Han, S. J, & Lee, K. H. (2016). Workplace incivility and its effect upon restaurant frontline service employee emotions and service performance. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28, 2888–2912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corrigan, P. W., Holmes, E. P., Luchins, D., Buican, B., Basit, A., & Parks, J. J. (1994). Staff burnout in a psychiatric hospital: A cross-lagged panel design. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 15, 65–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cortina, L. M., Kabat-Farr, D., Leskinen, E. A., Huerta, M., & Magley, V. J. (2013). Selective incivility as modern discrimination in organizations: Evidence and impact. Journal of Management, 39, 1579–1605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cortina, L. M., Kabat-Farr, D., Magley, V. J., & Nelson, K. (2017). Researching rudeness: The past, present, and future of the science of incivility. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22, 299–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J., Williams, J. H., & Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 64–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Clercq, D., Haq, I. U., & Azeem, M. U. (2018). The roles of informational unfairness and political climate in the relationship between dispositional envy and job performance in Pakistani organizations. Journal of Business Research, 82, 117–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Clercq, D., Rahman, Z., & Haq, I. U. (2019). Explaining helping behavior in the workplace: The interactive effect of family-to-work conflict and Islamic work ethic. Journal of Business Ethics, 155, 1167–1177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demsky, C. A., Ellis, A. M., & Fritz, C. (2014). Shrugging it off: Does psychological detachment from work mediate the relationship between workplace aggression and work-family conflict? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19, 195–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domangue, E., & Solmon, M. (2010). Motivational responses to fitness testing by award status and gender. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81, 310–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eagly, A. H., & Crowley, M. (1986). Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 283–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eatough, E. M., Chang, C. H., Miloslavic, S. A., & Johnson, R. E. (2011). Relationships of role stressors with organizational citizenship behaviour: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 619–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enos, M. D., Kehrhahn, M. T., & Bell, A. (2003). Informal learning and the transfer of learning: How managers develop proficiency. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14, 368–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estes, B., & Wang, J. (2008). Workplace incivility: Impacts on individual and organizational performance. Human Resource Development Review, 7, 218–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power. A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferguson, M. (2012). You cannot leave it at the office: Spillover and crossover of coworker incivility. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 571–588.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fida, R., Spence Laschinger, H. K., & Leiter, M. P. (2018). The protective role of self-efficacy against workplace incivility and burnout in nursing: A time-lagged study. Health Care Management Review, 43, 21–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, A. M. (1987). Depersonalization: A valid dimension of burnout? Human Relations, 40, 545–560.Google Scholar
Geldart, S., Langlois, L., Shannon, H. S., Cortina, L. M., Griffith, L., & Haines, T. (2018). Workplace incivility, psychological distress, and the protective effect of co-worker support. International Journal of Workplace Health Management, 11, 96–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1988). An updated paradigm for scale development incorporating unidimensionality and its assessment. Journal of Marketing Research, 25, 186–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenblatt, S. J. (2017). Why I feel like a fish out of water, or, Monachopsis – Part I. Employee Relations Law Journal, 43, 4–28.Google Scholar
Grunberg, L., Moore, S., & Greenberg, E. S. (2006). Mangers’ reactions to implementing layoffs, relationship to health problems and withdrawal behaviours. Human Resource Management, 45, 159–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunthert, K. C., Cohen, L. H., & Armeli, S. (1999). The role of neuroticism in daily stress and coping. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 77, 1087–1100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2009). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Hershcovis, M. S., Ogunfowora, B., Reich, T. C., & Christie, A. M. (2017). Targeted workplace incivility: The roles of belongingness, embarrassment, and power. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38, 1057–1075.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44: 513–524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resource theory. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50, 337–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobfoll, S. E. (2011). Conservation of resource caravans and engaged settings. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 116–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobfoll, S. E., & Shirom, A. (2000). Conservation of resources theory: Applications to stress and management in the workplace. In Golembiewski, R. T. (Ed.), Handbook of organization behaviour (2nd ed., pp. 57–81). New York: Dekker.Google Scholar
Hochwarter, W. A., Perrewé, P. L., & Dawkins, M. C. (1995). Gender differences in perceptions of stress-related variables: Do the people make the place or does the place make the people? Journal of Managerial Issues, 7, 62–74.Google Scholar
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Hon, A. H. Y., & Chan, W. W. (2013). The effects of group conflict and work stress on employee performance. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 54, 174–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, C.-C., Wang, Y.-M., Wu, T.-W., & Wang, P.-A. (2013). An empirical analysis of the antecedents and performance consequences of using the Moodle platform, International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 3, 217–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imran, R., Majeed, M., & Ayub, A. (2015). Enhancing performance: Examining the role played by high performance work systems. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 5, 379–384.Google Scholar
Jackson, S. E., Turner, J. A., & Arthur, P. (1987). Correlates of burnout among public service lawyers: Summary. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 8, 339–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, R. L. (2003). Structured on-the-job training: Unleashing employee expertise in the workplace. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.Google Scholar
Jalal, A. (1991). The convenience of subservience: Women and the state of Pakistan. In Kandiyoti, D. (Ed.), Women, Islam, and state (pp. 77–114). London: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaramillo, F., Mulki, J. P., & Solomon, P. (2006). The role of ethical climate on salesperson's role stress, job attitudes, turnover intention, and job performance. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 26, 271–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jawahar, I. M., Kisamore, J. L., Stone, T. H., & Rahn, D. L. (2012). Differential effect of inter-role conflict on proactive individual's experience of burnout. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27, 243–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, P. R., & Indvik, J. (2001). Rudeness at work: Impulse over restraint. Public Personnel Management, 30, 457–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kane, K., & Montgomery, K. (1998). A framework for understanding disempowerment in organizations. Human Resources Management, 37, 263–275.3.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kashif, M., Braganca, E., Awang, Z., & De Run, E. C. (2017). You abuse but I will stay: The combined effects of job stress, customer abuse, and emotional intelligence on employee turnover. Journal of Management Development, 36, 899–914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaukiainen, A., Salmivalli, C., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., Lahtinen, A., Kostamo, A., & Lagerspetz, K. (2001). Overt and covert aggression in work settings in relation to the subjective well-being of employees. Aggressive Behaviour, 27, 360–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keaveney, S. M., & Nelson, J. E. (1993). Coping with organizational role stress: Intrinsic motivational orientation, perceived role benefits, and psychological withdrawal. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 21, 113–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelloway, E. K., & Barling, J. (1991). Job characteristics, role stress and mental health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 64, 291–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilroy, S., Flood, P. C., Bosak, J., & Chenevert, D. (2016). Perceptions of high-involvement work practices and burnout: The mediating role of job demands. Human Resource Management Journal, 26, 408–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, W., Kim, J., Woo, H., Park, J., Jo, J., Park, S.-H., & Lim, S. Y. (2017). The relationship between work engagement and organizational commitment: Proposing research agendas through a review of empirical literature. Human Resource Development Review, 16, 350–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koon, V.-Y., & Pun, P.-Y. (2018). The mediating role of emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction on the relationship between job demands and instigated workplace incivility. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 54(2), 187–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leana, C. R., & van Buren, H. J. III (1999). Organizational social capital and employment practices. Academy of Management Review, 24, 538–555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J. H., & Ok, C. (2015). Examination of factors affecting hotel employees’ service orientation: An emotional labor perspective. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 39, 437–468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, S., Cortina, L. M., & Magley, V. J. (2008). Personal and workgroup incivility: Impact on work and health outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 95–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loh, J. M. I., & Loi, N. (2018). Tit for tat: Burnout as a mediator between workplace incivility and instigated workplace incivility. Asia-Pacific Journal of Business Administration, 10, 100–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loi, N. M., Loh, J. M., & Hine, D. W. (2015). Don't rock the boat: The moderating role of gender in the relationship between workplace incivility and work withdrawal. Journal of Management Development, 34, 169–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioural Research, 39, 99–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malik, S. Z., Saleem, M., & Naeem, R. (2016). Effect of leadership styles on organizational citizenship behaviour in employees of telecom sector in Pakistan. Pakistan Economic and Social Review, 54, 385–406.Google Scholar
Mansoor, M., Fida, S., Nasir, S., & Ahmad, Z. (2011). The impact of job stress on employee job satisfaction: A study on the telecommunication sector of Pakistan. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 2, 50–56.Google Scholar
Masihabadi, A., Rajaei, A., Koloukhi, A. S., & Parsian, H. (2015). Effects of stress on auditors’ organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and job performance. International Journal of Organizational Leadership, 4, 303–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarthy, J. M., Trougakos, J. P., & Cheng, B. H. (2016). Are anxious workers less productive workers? It depends on the quality of social exchange. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101, 279–291CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Memon, A. S. (2006). Education and class in Pakistan: The growth of the private sector. Journal of Independent Studies and Research, 4, 32–39.Google Scholar
Mesch, D. J., Brown, M. S., Moore, Z. I., & Hayat, A. D. (2011). Gender differences in charitable giving. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 16, 342–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, R. A. (2009). The ethics narrative and the role of the business school in moral development. Journal of Business Ethics, 90, 287–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miner, K. N., & Cortina, L. M. (2016). Observed workplace incivility toward women, perceptions of interpersonal injustice, and observer occupational well-being: Differential effects for gender of the observer. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miner-Rubino, K., & Cortina, L. M. (2007). Beyond targets: Consequences of vicarious exposure to misogyny at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1254–1269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohr, A. T., & Puck, J. F. (2007). Role conflict, general manager job satisfaction and stress and the performance of IJVs. European Management Journal, 25, 25–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mottaz, C. J. (1986). An analysis of the relationship between education and organizational commitment in a variety of occupational groups. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 28, 214–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nahapiet, J., & Ghoshal, S. (1998). Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23, 242–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Netemeyer, R. G., Maxham, J. G. III, & Pullig, C. (2005). Conflicts in the work family interface: Links to job stress, customer service employee performance, and customer purchase intent. Journal of Marketing, 69, 130–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ng, K. Y., & Van Dyne, L. (2005). Antecedents and performance consequences of helping behavior in work groups: A multilevel analysis. Group and Organization Management, 30, 514–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2012). Employee voice behaviour: A meta-analytic test of the conservation of resources framework. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 33, 216–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, D. F., & DeCotiis, T. A. (1983). Organizational determinants of job stress. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 32, 160–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, G. T., Moore, C. B., Griffis, S. E., & Autry, C. W. (2011). Multilevel challenges and opportunities in social capital research. Journal of Management, 37, 491–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, C. M., Andersson, L. M., & Wegner, J. W. (2001). When workers flout convention: A study of workplace incivility. Human Relations, 54, 1387–1419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, C. M., & Porath, C. L. (2005). On the nature, consequences, and remedies of workplace incivility: No time for ‘nice’? Think again. Academy of Management Executive, 19, 7–18.Google Scholar
Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organization research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 532–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pooja, A. A., De Clercq, D., & Belausteguigoitia, I. (2016). Job stressors and organizational citizenship behaviour: The roles of organizational commitment and social interaction. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 27, 373–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porath, C. (2016). The hidden toll of workplace incivility. McKinsey Quarterly, December 2016, Available online at: http://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/organization/our-insights/the-hidden-toll-of-workplace-incivility.Google Scholar
Porath, C., Overbeck, J. R., & Pearson, C. (2008). Picking up the gauntlet: How individuals respond to status challenges. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 1945–1980.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porath, C., & Pearson, C. (2009). How toxic colleagues corrode performance. Harvard Business Review, 32, 1–135.Google Scholar
Porath, C., & Pearson, C. (2010). The cost of bad behaviour. Organizational Dynamics, 39, 64–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porath, C., & Pearson, C. (2013). The price of incivility. Harvard Business Review, 91, 114–121.Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behaviour Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717–731.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Assessing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions, Multivariate Behavioural Research, 42, 185–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinn, R. W., Spreitzer, G. M., & Lam, C. F. (2012). Building a sustainable model of human energy in organizations: Exploring the critical role of resources. Academy of Management Annals, 6, 337–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahim, A., & Cosby, D. M. (2016). A model of workplace incivility, job burnout, turnover intentions, and job performance. Journal of Management Development, 35, 1255–1265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reiger, K. M., & Lane, K. L. (2009). Working together: Collaboration between midwives and doctors in public hospitals. Australian Health Review, 33, 315–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rest, J. R. (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. New York: Praeger Press.Google Scholar
Rosen, C. C., Koopman, J., Gabriel, A. S., & Johnson, R. E. (2016). Who strikes back? A daily investigation of when and why incivility begets incivility. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101, 1620–1634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schilpzand, P., De Pater, I. E., & Erez, A. (2016). Workplace incivility: A review of the literature and agenda for future research. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 37(Suppl 1), S57–S88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schilpzand, P., Leavitt, K., & Lim, S. (2016). Incivility hates company: Shared incivility attenuates rumination, stress, and psychological withdrawal by reducing self-blame. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 133, 33–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schminke, M., Ambrose, M. L., & Miles, J. A. (2003). The impact of gender and setting on perceptions of others’ ethics. Sex Roles, 48, 361–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sguera, F., Bagozzi, R. P., Huy, Q. N., Boss, R. W., & Boss, D. S. (2016). Curtailing the harmful effects of workplace incivility: The role of structural demands and organization-provided resources. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 95–96, 115–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharifirad, M. S. (2016). Can incivility impair team's creative performance through paralyzing employee's knowledge sharing? A multi-level approach. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 37, 200–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sliter, M., Sliter, K., & Jex, S. (2012). The employee as a punching bag: The effect of multiple sources of incivility on employee withdrawal behaviour and sales performance. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 33, 121–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sliter, M. T., & Boyd, E. M. (2015). But we're here to help! Positive buffers of the relationship between outsider incivility and employee outcomes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24, 225–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spector, P. E. (2006). Method variance in organizational research: Truth or urban legend? Organizational Research Methods, 9, 221–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strachan, G., Adikaram, A., & Kailasapathy, P. (2015) gender (in)equality in South Asia: Problems, prospects and pathways. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 2, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Syed, J., Ali, F., & Winstanley, D. (2005). In pursuit of modesty: Contextual emotional labour and the dilemma for working women in Islamic societies. International Journal of Work, Organization and Emotion, 1, 150–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S. G., Bedeian, A. G., Cole, M. S., & Zhang, Z. (2017). Developing and testing a dynamic model of workplace incivility change. Journal of Management, 43, 645–670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S. G., Bedeian, A. G., & Kluemper, D. H. (2012). Linking workplace incivility to citizenship performance: The combined effects of affective commitment and conscientiousness. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 33, 878–893.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandenberghe, C., Panaccio, A., & Ayed, A. K. B. (2011). Continuance commitment and turnover: Examining the moderating role of negative affectivity and risk aversion. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 403–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welbourne, J. L., Gangadharan, A., & Esparza, C. A. (2016). Coping style and gender effects on attitudinal responses to incivility. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 31, 720–738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welzel, C. (2013). Freedom rising: Human empowerment and the quest for emancipation. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, L.-Z., Zhang, H., Chiu, R. K., Kwan, H. K., & He, X. (2014). Hostile attribution bias and negative reciprocity beliefs exacerbate incivility's effects on interpersonal deviance. Journal of Business Ethics, 120, 189–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xie, J. L. (1996). Karasek's model in the People's Republic of China: Effects of job demands, control, and individual differences. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 1594–1618.Google Scholar
Xie, J. L., & Johns, G. (1995). Job scope and stress: Can job scope be too high? Academy of Management Journal, 38, 1288–1309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar