Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-g4j75 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-11T22:47:22.836Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Improving Laws and Legal Authorities for Obesity Prevention and Control

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Jennifer L. Pomeranz  and
Lawrence O. Gostin
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

This paper is one of four interrelated action papers resulting from the 2008 National Summit on Legal Preparedness for Obesity Prevention and Control. Summit participants engaged in discussions on the current state of the law with respect to obesity, nutrition and food policy, physical activity, and physical education. Participants also identified gaps in the law at all jurisdictional levels and relevant to numerous sectors and disciplines that have a stake in obesity prevention and control.

The companion paper, “Assessment of Laws and Legal Authorities for Obesity Prevention and Control,”identified numerous laws and policies enacted to target the three domains of healthy lifestyles, healthy places, and healthy societies. That paper identified several gaps in the law that require attention and action. This paper addresses those gaps and presents applicable laws and legal authorities that public health professionals and lawyers can consider to implement to close the gaps.

Type
JLME Supplement
Information
Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , Volume 37 , Issue S1 , Summer 2009 , pp. 62 - 75
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

See Gostin, L. O. Pomeranz, J. L., “The Vital Domains of Obesity Prevention and Control: Healthy Lifestyles, Healthy Places, and Healthy Societies,” Assessing Laws and Legal Authorities for Obesity Prevention and Control.Google Scholar
Moulton, A. D. Gottfried, R. N. Goodman, R. A. Murphy, A. M., and Rawson, R. D., “What Is Public Health Legal Preparedness?” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 31 no. 4 (2003): 1–12.Google Scholar
See Gostin, Pomeranz, , supra note 1.Google Scholar
Editorial, “Harvesting Cash,” Washington Post, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-rv/nation/interactives/farmaid/ (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Editorial, “Making the Most of a Subsidy,” Washington Post, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2006/07/03/GR2006070300057.html (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Putnam, J. J. Allhouse, J. E., and Kantor, L. S., “U.S. Per Capita Food Supply Trends: More Calories, Refined Carbohydrates, and Fats,” Food Review, 25 no. 3 (2002): 2–15.Google Scholar
Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, Iowa State University, Food Facts: Results from Marketing and Food Systems Research, March 2008, at 8, available at http://www.leopold.iastate.edu/research/marketing_files/food/Food_Facts_0308.pdf (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Swenson, D., Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, Iowa State University, The Economic Impacts of Increased Fruit and Vegetable Production and Consumption in Iowa: Phase II, 2006, available at http://www.leopold.iastate.edu/pubs/staff/files/health_0606.pdf (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Brown, A. F. Vargas, R. B. Ang, A., and Pebley, A. R., “The Neighborhood Food Resource Environment and the Health of Residents with Chronic Conditions: The Food Resource Environment and the Health of Residents,” Journal of General Internal Medicine, 23 no. 8 (2008): 1137–1144.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Bodor, J. N. Rose, D. Farley, T. A. Swalm, C., and Scott, S. K., “Neighbourhood Fruit and Vegetable Availability and Consumption: The Role of Small Food Stores in an Urban environment,” Public Health Nutrition, 11 no. 4 (2008): 413–420.Google Scholar
Li, F. Harmer, P. A. Cardinal, B. J. Bosworth, M. Acock, A. Johnson-Shelton, D., and Moore, J. M., “Built Environment, Adiposity, and Physical Activity in Adults Aged 50–75,” American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 35 no. 1 (2008): 38–46.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Federal Trade Commission, “Food Industry Marketing to Children Report: Orders to File Special Report; FTC Matter No.: P064504,” available at http://www.ftc.gov/os/6b_orders/foodmktg6b/index.shtm (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Federal Trade Commission, Marketing Food to Children and Adolescents, July 2008, available at http://www.ftc.gov/os/2008/07/P064504foodmktingreport.pdf (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Harris, J. L. Pomeranz, J. L. Lobstein, T., and Brownell, K. D., “A Crisis in the Marketplace: How Food Marketing Contributes to Childhood Obesity and What Can Be Done,” Annual Review of Public Health (citing studies) (in press).Google Scholar
Federal Trade Commission Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 41–58 (as amended).Google Scholar
46 FR 48710, Children's Advertising, codified at 16 CFR 461 (October 2, 1981). 20.15 U.S.C. 45(h).Google Scholar
Mello, M. M., “Federal Trade Commission Regulation of Food Advertising to Children: Possibilities for a Reinvigorated Role,” working paper, 2008.Google Scholar
Pomeranz, J., “Television Food Marketing to Children Revisited: The Federal Trade Commission Has the Constitutional and Statutory Authority to Regulate,” working paper, 2009.Google Scholar
IOM, Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity, 2006, at 309.Google Scholar
Kunkel, D. Wilcox, B. L. Cantor, J. Palmer, E. Linn, S., and Dowrick, P., Report of the APA Task Force on Advertising and Children: Psychological Issues in the Increasing Commercialization of Childhood, February 20, 2004, at 16.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, D. McDowell, J. Berestein, L. Tsiantar, D., and Finan, E., “It's an Ad, Ad, Ad, Ad World,” Time, 160 no. 10 (2002):38–42.Google Scholar
See e.g., Williams v. Gerber Products Co., 2008 U.S. App. LEXIS 8599 (April 21, 2008 9th Cir) (private litigant successfully brought action under California's consumer protection laws for deceptive packaging of Gerber food product for toddlers). See, e.g., NY CLS Gen Bus § 349 (2008) (Deceptive acts and practices unlawful; attorney general may bring an action in the name and on behalf of the people of the state of New York).Google Scholar
See Gostin, Pomeranz, , supra note 1.Google Scholar
Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty, 272 U.S. 365 (1926).Google Scholar
Hodgson, K., Regulation of Food Access through Comprehensive Planning and Zoning,” Virginia Tech, Urban Affairs and Planning, Alexandria Center, April 17, 2008 (unpublished manuscript).Google Scholar
Mair, J. S. Pierce, M. W., and Teret, S. P., The Use of Zoning to Restrict Fast Food Outlets: A Potential Strategy to Combat Obesity, October 2005, available at http://www.publichealthlaw.net/Zoning%20Fast%20Food%20Outlets.pdf (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Delva, J. O'Malley, P. M., and Johnston, L. D., “Availability of More-Healthy and Less-Healthy Food Choices in American Schools: A National Study of Grade, Racial/Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Differences,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33 no. 4, Supplement (2007): S226–S239.Google Scholar
Perdue, W. C. Stone, L. A., and Gostin, L. O., The Built Environment and Its Relationship to the Public's Health: The Legal Framework,” American Journal of Public Health 93, no. 9 (2003): 1390–1394.Google Scholar
Besser, L. M. Dannenberg, A. L., “Walking to Public Transit Steps to Help Meet Physical Activity Recommendations,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 29 no. 4 (2005): 273–280.Google Scholar
Li, F. Harmer, P. A. Cardinal, B. J. Bosworth, M. Acock, A. Johnson-Shelton, D. Moore, J. M., “Built Environment, Adiposity, and Physical Activity in Adults Aged 50–75,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 35, no. 1 (2008): 38–46.Google Scholar
Stokes, R. J. MacDonald, J., and Ridgeway, G., Estimating the Effects of Light Rail Transit on Health Care Costs,” Health Place 14, no. 1 (2008): 45–58.Google Scholar
See Besser, Dannenberg, , supra note 33.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
See Stokes, MacDonald, , and Ridgeway, , supra note 35.Google Scholar
American Public Transportation Association, 10.3 Billion Trips Taken On Public Transportation Ridership In 2007 – The Highest Level in 50 Years; Ridership Increased as Gas Prices Remained High, News Release, March 3, 2008, available at http://www.apta.com/media/releases/080310_ridership.cfm (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Report of the National Surface Transportation Policy and Revenue Study Commission: Transportation for Tomorrow, January 2008.Google Scholar
23 U.S.C. 101 et seq.Google Scholar
U. S. PIRG Education Fund, A Better Way to Go: Meeting American 21st Century Challenges with Modern Public Transit, March 2008, at 57.Google Scholar
Id., at 40.Google Scholar
Future Highway and Public Transportation Financingepared for National Chamber Foundation, prepared by Cambridge Systematics, Inc. with Mercator Advisors, LLC, Alan E. Pisarski.Google Scholar
See Stokes, MacDonald, , and Ridgeway, , supra note 35.Google Scholar
National REACH Coalition, Creating More Equity in Health: A Comprehensive Approach to Health Reform, July 2008.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Overview of the Uninsured in the United States: An Analysis of the 2007 Current Population Survey, September 2007.Google Scholar
Hartman, M. Martin, A. McDonnell, P., and Catlin, A., Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services, “National Health Spending in 2007: Slower Drug Spending Contributes to Lowest Rate of Overall Growth Since 1998” Health Affairs, 28 no. 1 (2000): 246–261.http://www.apta.com/media/releases/080310_ridership.cfmGoogle Scholar
See CDC's LEAN for Life, available at <www.cdc.gov/leanfor-life> (access protected). (access protected).' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=48+See+CDC's+LEAN+for+Life,+available+at++(access+protected).>Google Scholar
Thorpe, K. E. Florence, C. S. Howard, D. H., and Joski, P., “The Impact of Obesity on the Rise in Medical Spending” Health Affairs Web Exclusive, Supplement (2004): W4–480-w4–86.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Reyes, M., “Obesity in Workplaces,” Presentation for CDC Lean for Life, 2008.Google Scholar
Prevention Institute, Restructuring Government to Address Social Determinants of Health, May 2008.Google Scholar
See Gostin, Pomeranz, , supra note 1.Google Scholar
Gostin, L., Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).Google Scholar
Moran, P. Pomeranz, J., and Mello, M. M., Policies Affecting Access to Sugar-Sweetened Beverages in Schools: A Legal and Regulatory Review, Report to the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation 2006.Google Scholar
The National School Lunch Program and the National School Breakfast Program have identical “competitive food” standards and thus are, for purposes of this paper, treated as one program. See 7 C.F.R. § 210.12 (National School Lunch Program Competitive Food rules) and 7 C.F.R. § 220.12 (National School Breakfast Program Competitive Food rules).Google Scholar
USDA Memorandum, National School Lunch Program/School Breakfast Program, January 16, 2001.Google Scholar
See Delva, O'Malley, , and Johnston, , supra note 31.Google Scholar
7 CFR 210.11(a)(1).Google Scholar
7 CFR 210.11 (b).Google Scholar
7 CFR 210 Appendix B (a).Google Scholar
7 CFR 210 Appendix B (b).Google Scholar
7 CFR 210.11(a).Google Scholar
Fox, S. Meinen, A. Pesik, M. Landis, M. Remington, P. L., Competitive Food Initiatives in Schools and Overweight in Children: A Review of the Evidence,” WMJ 104 (2005): 38–43.Google Scholar
7 CFR 210.11(b).Google Scholar
Public Law 108–265 [S. 2507], June 30, 2004.Google Scholar
Public Law 108–265 [S. 2507], June 30, 2004 § 204 (a)(1).Google Scholar
See Moran, Pomeranz, , and Mello, , supra note 56.Google Scholar
Patrick, H. Nicklas, T. A., A Review of Family and Social Determinants of Children's Eating Patterns and Diet Quality,” Journal of the American College of Nutrition 24, no. 2 (2005): 83–92.Google Scholar
See Delva, O'Malley, , and Johnston, , supra note 31.Google Scholar
Mello, M. M. Pomeranz, J., and Moran, P., “The Interplay of Public Health Law and Industry Self-regulation: The Case of Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Sales in Schools,” American Journal of Public Health, 98 no. 4 (2008): 595–604.Google Scholar
Story, M. Kaphingst, K. M., and French, S., “The Role of Schools in Obesity Prevention,” Future of Children, 16 no. 1 (2006): 109–142.Google Scholar
See Moran, Pomeranz, , and Mello, , supra note 56. Blum, Whatley J. E. Davee, A. M. Devore, R. L. Beaudoin, C. M. Jenkins, P. L. Kaley, L. A. Wigand, D. A., “Implementation of Low-Fat, Low-Sugar, and Portion-Controlled Nutrition Guidelines in Competitive Food Venues of Maine Public High Schools,” Journal of School Health, 77 no. 10 (2007): 687–693.Google Scholar
See Moran, Pomeranz, , and Mello, ,supra note 56.Google Scholar
Graff, S. K., “First Amendment Implications of Restricting Food and Beverage Marketing in Schools,” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 615 (2008): 157–177.Google Scholar
Trickey, H., “No Child Left Out of the Dodgeball Game?” CNN.com (Health), August 24, 2006, available at http://www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH/08/20/PE.NCLB/index.html (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), “2006 Shape of the Nation Report,” available at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/ShapeOfTheNation/ (last visited March 18, 2009).Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
National Governors Association and National Association of State Budget Officers, The Fiscal Survey of the States, June 2008, available at http://www.nasbo.org/Publications/PDFs/Fiscal%20Survey%20of%20the%20States%20June%202008.pdf (last visited March 19, 2009). Id.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Medicaid Fact Sheet, Center for Medicaid and State Operations, Medicaid At-A-Glance 2005: A Medicaid Information Source, available at http://www.cms.hhs.gov/MedicaidGenInfo/Downloads/MedicaidAtA-Glance2005.pdf (last visited March 19, 2009).Google Scholar
Finkelstein, E. A. Fiebelkorn, I. C., and Wang, G., “National Medical Spending Attributable to Overweight and Obesity: How Much, and Who's Paying?” Health Affairs W3 (2003): 219–226.Google Scholar
National REACH Coalition, Creating More Equity in Health: A Comprehensive Approach to Health Reform, July 2008, NGA Center Issue Brief, Medicaid Redesigned: State Innovations in Health Coverage and Delivery, March 2008, available at http://www.nga.org/Files/pdf/0803MEDICAIDREDESIGNED.PDF (last visited March 19, 2009). NGA Center Issue Brief, Creating Healthy States: Healthy Living in the Medicaid Program, March 2006, available at http://www.nga.org/Files/pdf/0608CREATINGHEALTHYSTATESMEDICAID.PDF (last visited March 19, 2009).Google Scholar
Beal, A. C. Doty, M. M. Hernandez, S. E. Shea, K. K., and Davis, K., Closing the Divide: How Medical Homes Promote Equity in Health Care, Results from The Commonwealth Fund 2006 Health Care Quality Survey, vol. 62 (June 27, 2007).Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Wilensky, S. Whittington, R., and Rosenbaum, S., Strategies for Improving Access to Comprehensive Obesity Prevention and Treatment Services for Medicaid-Enrolled Children, Policy Brief, October 2006.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
NIH Consensus Statement, Gastrointestinal Surgery for Severe Obesity 9, no. 1 (March 25–27, 1991): 1–20.Google Scholar
Batsis, J. A. Romero-Corral, A. Collazo-Clavell, M. L. Sarr, M. G. Somers, V. K. Brekke, L., and Lopez-Jimenez, F., “Effect of Weight Loss on Predicted Cardiovascular Risk: Change in Cardiac Risk after Bariatric Surgery,” Obesity, 15 no. 3 (2007): 772–784.Google Scholar
Batsis, J. A. Romero-Corral, A. Collazo-Clavell, M. L. Sarr, M. G. Somers, V. K., and Lopez-Jimenez, F., “Effect of Bariatric Surgery on the Metabolic Syndrome: A Population-Based, Long-Term Controlled Study,” Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 83 no. 8 (2008): 897–907.Google Scholar
Hodge, J. G. Garcia, A. M., and Shah, S., “Legal Themes Concerning Obesity Regulation in the United States: Theory and Practice,” Australia and New Zealand Health Policy 5:14 (2008).Google Scholar
Livingston, E. H. Ko, C. K., Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Population Eligible for Obesity Surgery,” Surgery 135 (2004): 288–296.Google Scholar
Alexander, J. W. Goodman, H. R. Hawver, Martin L. R., and James, L., “The Impact of Medicaid Status on Outcome after Gastric Bypass,” Obesity Surgery, 18 no. 10 (2008): 1241–1245.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Institute of Medicine, Summary. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care, National Academy of Sciences, 2003.Google Scholar
National REACH Coalition, Creating More Equity in Health: A Comprehensive Approach to Health Reform, July 2008, at 12.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Joe, J. R., “The Rationing of Healthcare and Health Disparity for the American Indians/Alaska Natives,” in Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care, National Academy of Sciences, 2003.Google Scholar
See National REACH Coalition, supra note 100.Google Scholar
Andrulis, D. P. Duchon, L. M., Hospital Care in the 100 Largest Cities and Their Suburbs, 1996–2002: Implications for the Future of the Hospital Safety Net in Metropolitan America, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, August 2005.Google Scholar
See Institute of Medicine, supra note 99.Google Scholar
See National REACH Coalition, supra note 100.Google Scholar
Story, M. Evans, M. Fabsitz, R. R. Clay, T. E. Rock, B. H., and Broussard, B., “The Epidemic of Obesity in American Indian Communities and the Need for Childhood Obesity Prevention Programs,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69, Supplement (1999): 747S-754S.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Puhl, R. Brownell, K. D., “Bias, Discrimination, and Obesity,” Obesity Research, 9 no. 12 (2001): 788–805.Google Scholar
State Representative Byron Rushing recently introduced a bill in Massachusetts making it illegal to discriminate based on size (i.e., weight and height). See MA House Bill No. 1844 (2007).Google Scholar
Fikkan, J. Rothblum, E., “Weight Bias in Employment,” in Brownell, K. D. Puhl, R. B. Schwartz, M. B., and Rudd, L. C., eds., Weight Bias: Nature, Consequences, and Remedies. (New York: Guilford, 2005): At 15–25.Google Scholar
Pomeranz, J. L., “A Historical Analysis of Public Health, the Law, and Stigmatized Social Groups: The Need for Both Obesity and Weight Bias Legislation,” Obesity 16, Supplement 2 (November 2008): S93–S103.Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 621 et seq.Google Scholar
42 U.S.C. § 12101 et seq.Google Scholar
29 U.S.C. § 701 et seq.Google Scholar
42 U.S.C. § 12102(2).Google Scholar
EEOC v. Watkins Motor Lines, Inc., 463 F.3d. 436, 443 (6th Cir. 2006).Google Scholar
ADA Amendments Act of 2008, Public Law 110–325 (September 25, 2008).Google Scholar
See S. 3406 §2(b)(3); H.R. 3195 §2(b)(3).Google Scholar
See, e.g., Sutton v. United Air Lines, Inc., 527 U.S. 471, 489–494 (1999).Google Scholar
School Board of Nassau Co., FL v. Arline, 480 U.S. 273, 283–284 (1987) (citing S. Rep. No. 93-1297, at 64) (internal citations omitted).Google Scholar
See Pomeranz, , supra note 113.Google Scholar
FTC Improvements Act of 1980, 15 U.S.C. § 57a(h) (FTC Improvements Act of 1980 took away FTC's authority to “promulgate any rule” based on a determination that children's advertising constitutes an unfair act or practice.)Google Scholar
See, e.g., Personal Responsibility in Food Consumption Act, HR 339, 108th Cong. (2004); Personal Responsibility in Food Consumption Act of 2005, HR 554, 109th Cong. (2005); Commonsense Consumption Act of 2005, S. 908, 109th Cong. (2005); Commonsense Consumption Act of 2007 (Introduced in House) HR 2183 IH (110th CONGRESS) 1st Session;Commonsense Consumption Act of 2007 (Introduced in Senate) S 1323 IS (110th CONGRESS) 1st Session.Google Scholar
See, e.g., USDA, “MyPyramid available at http://www.mypyramid.gov/ (last visited March 19, 2009).Google Scholar