Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T20:34:44.393Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Parental Influence on Eating Behavior: Conception to Adolescence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Jennifer S. Savage ,
Jennifer Orlet Fisher  and
Leann L. Birch
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Eating behaviors evolve during the first years of life as biological and behavioral processes directed towards meeting requirements for health and growth. For the vast majority of human history, food scarcity has constituted a major threat to survival, and human eating behavior and child feeding practices have evolved in response to this threat. Because infants are born into a wide variety of cultures and cuisines, they come equipped as young omnivores with a set of behavioral predispositions that allow them to learn to accept the foods made available to them. During historical conditions of scarcity, family life and resources were devoted to the procurement and preparation of foods, which are often low in energy, nutrients, and palatability. In sharp contrast, today in non-Third World countries children's eating habits develop under unprecedented conditions of dietary abundance, where palatable, inexpensive, ready-to-eat foods are readily available.

Type
Symposium
Information
Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , Volume 35 , Issue 1 , Spring 2007 , pp. 22 - 34
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

U.S. Census Bureau, County Business Patterns for the United States, 2003.Google Scholar
Food Marketing Institute, Supermarket Facts (2004), available at <http://www.fmi.org/facts_figs/superfact.htm> (last visited November 29, 2006).+(last+visited+November+29,+2006).>Google Scholar
Young, L. R. and Nestle, M., “Expanding Portion Sizes in the U.S. Marketplace: Implications for Nutrition Counseling,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103, no. 2 (2003): 231–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agricultural Research Service Community Nutrition Research Group, Results from USDA's 1994–96 Diet and Health Knowledge Survey: Table Set 19 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2000).Google Scholar
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Women in the Labor Force: A Databook (U.S. Department of Labor, 2004).Google Scholar
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Characteristics of Families (U.S. Department of Labor, 2005).Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey Reports, America's Families and Living Arrangements (2004).Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, Who's Minding the Kids? Child Care Arrangements (Spring 1999).Google Scholar
Lugaila, T, 'A Child's Day: 2000 (Selected Indicators of Child Well-Being),” in Current Population Reports: U.S. Census Bureau (Washington, D.C.: 2003): 70–89.Google Scholar
Nielsen, S. J., Siega-Riz, A. M., and Popkin, B. M., “Trends in Energy Intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: Similar Shifts Seen across Age Groups,” Obesity Research 5 (2002): 370–378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Expenditures in 2003 (U.S. Department of Labor, 2003): at Table 6: Composition of Consumer Unit: Average Annual Expenditures and Characteristics, Consumer Expenditure Survey, 2003.Google Scholar
Nielsen, S. J. and Popkin, B. M., “Patterns and Trends in Food Portion Sizes, 1977–1998,” JAMA 289, no. 4 (2003): 450–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowman, S. A., Gortmaker, S. L., Ebbeling, C. B., Pereira, M. A., and Ludwig, D. S., “Effects of Fast-Food Consumption on Energy Intake and Diet Quality among Children in a National Household Survey,” Pediatrics 113 (2004): 112–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mennella, J. A., Johnson, A., and Beauchamp, G. K., “Garlic Ingestion by Pregnant Women Alters the Odor of Amniotic Fluid,” Chemical Senses 20, no. 2 (1995): 207–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauser, G. J., Chitayat, D., Berns, L., Braver, D., and Muhlbauer, B., “Peculiar Odours in Newborns and Maternal Pernatal Ingestion of Spicy Foods,” European Journal of Pediatrics 144, no. 4 (1985): 403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaal, B., Marlier, L., and Soussignan, R., “Human Foetuses Learn Odours from their Pregnant Mother's Diet,” Chemical Senses 25 (2000): 729–737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mennella, J. A., Coren, P., Jagnow, M. S., and Beauchamp, G. K., “Prenatal and Postnatal Flavor Learning by Human Infants,” Pediatrics 107, no. 6 (2001): 88–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gartner, L. M., Morton, J., Lawrence, R. A., Naylor, A. J., O'Hare, D., Schanler, R. J., and Eidelman, A. I., “Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk,” Pediatrics 115, no. 2 (2005): 496–506; American Academy of Pediatrics, “Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk. American Academy of Pediatrics. Work Group on Breastfeeding,” Pediatrics 100, no. 6 (1997): 1035–1039.Google Scholar
Kramer, M. S. and Kakuma, R., “The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding: A Systematic Review,” Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 554 (2004): 63–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewey, K. G., “Is Breastfeeding Protective against Child Obesity?” Journal of Human Lactation 19, no. 1 (2003): 9–18; Owen, C., Martin, R., Whincup, P., Smith, G. D., and Cook, D. G., “Effect of Infant Feeding on the Risk of Obesity across the Life Course: A Quantitative Review of Published Evidence,” Pediatrics 115, no. 5 (2005): 1367–1377; Arenz, S., Ruckerl, R., Koletzko, B., and von Kries, R., “Breast-Feeding and Childhood Obesity-A Systematic Review,” International Journal Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders 28, no. 10 (2004): 1247–1256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Arenz, supra note 20.Google Scholar
See Dewey, supra note 20.Google Scholar
Riordan, J. and Countryman, B. A., “Basics of Breastfeeding. Part I: Infant Feeding Patterns Past and Present,” Journal of Obstetric, Gynecological & Neonatal Nursing 9, no. 4 (1980): 207–210; see Dewey, supra note 20.Google Scholar
Mennella, J. A. and Beauchamp, G. K., “Maternal Diet Alters the Sensory Qualities of Human Milk and Nursling's Behavior,” Pediatrics 88 (1991): 737–744.Google Scholar
Mennella, J. A. and Beauchamp, G. K., “The Transfer of Alcohol to Human Milk: Effects on Flavor and the Infant's Behavior,” New England Journal of Medicine 325 (1991): 981–985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mennella, J. A. and Beauchamp, G. K., “The Infant's Response to Vanilla Flavors in Mother's Milk and Formula,” Infant Behavior and Development (1996): 13–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mennella, J. A. and Beauchamp, G. K., “The Effects of Repeated Exposure to Garlic-flavored Milk on the Nursling's Behavior,” Pediatric Research 34 (1993): 805–808.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mennella, J. A., Jagnow, C. P., and Beauchamp, G. K., “Prenatal and Postnatal Flavor Learning by Human Infants,” Pediatrics 107, no. 6 (2001): E88.Google Scholar
See Mannella, supra note 17.Google Scholar
See Menella, supra note 28.Google Scholar
Sullivan, S. A., Birch, L. L., “Infant Dietary Experience and Acceptance of Solid Foods,” Pediatrics 93, no. 2 (1994): 271–277.Google Scholar
Adair, L. S., “The Infant's Ability to Self-Regulate Caloric Intake: A Case Study,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 84, no. 5 (1984): 543–546; Fomon, S. J., Filer, L. J., Thomas, L. N., Anderson, T. A., and Nelson, S. E., “Influence of Formula Concentration on Caloric Intake and Growth of Normal Infants,” Acta Pediatrica Scandinavica 64 (1975): 172–181; Fox, M. K., Devaney, B., Reidy, K., Razafindrakoto, C., and Ziegler, P., “Relationship between Portion Size and Energy Intake among Infants and Toddlers: Evidence of Self Regulation,” American Journal of the Dietetics Association 106 (2006): S77–S83.Google Scholar
Fisher, J. O., Birch, L. L., Smiciklas-Wright, H., and Picciano, M. F., “Breast-Feeding through the First Year Predicts Maternal Control in Feeding and Subsequent Toddler Energy Intakes,” American Journal of the Dietetics Association 100, no. 6 (2000): 641–646.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewey, K. G., “Growth Characteristics of Breast-fed Compared to Formula-fed Infants,” Biology of the Neonate 74, no. 2 (1998): 94–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewey, K. G., Nommsen-Rivers, L., and Lonnerdal, B., “Plasma Insulin and Insulin-releasing Amino Acids (IRAA) Concentrations are Higher in Formula-fed than in Breastfed Infants at 5 Months of Age,” in Experimental Biology (2004): Abstract #1124.Google Scholar
Davis, C. M., “Results of the Self-Selection of Diets by Young Children,” The Canadian Medical Association Journal 41 (1939): 257–261; Davis, C. M., “Self-Selection of Diet by Newly Weaned Infants,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 36 (1928): 651–679.Google Scholar
Fomon, S. J., Filer, L. J., Thomas, L. N., Rogers, R. R., and Proksch, A. M., “Relationship between Formula Concentration and Rate of Growth of Normal Infants,” Journal of Nutrition 98, no. 2 (1969): 241–254; Fomon, S. J., Filmer, L. J., Thomas, L. N., Anderson, T. A., and Nelson, S. E., “Influence of Formula Concentration on Caloric Intake and Growth of Normal Infants,” Acta Paediatric Scandinavia 64, no. 2 (1975): 172–181.Google Scholar
Pearcey, S. M. and De Castro, J. M., “Food Intake and Meal Patterns of One Year Old Infants,” Appetite 29, no. 2 (1997): 201–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, R. J., Brown, K. H., Canahuati, J., Rivera, L. L., and Dewey, K. G., “Effects of Age of Introduction of Complementary Foods on Infant Breast Milk Intake, Total Energy Intake, and Growth: A Randomised Intervention Study in Honduras,” Lancet 344 (1994): 288–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, L. and Deysher, M., “Conditioned and Unconditioned Caloric Compensation: Evidence for Self-Regulation of Food Intake by Young Children,” Learning and Motivation 16 (1985): 341–355; Birch, L. L. and Deysher, M., “Caloric Compensation and Sensory Specific Satiety: Evidence for Self Regulation of Food Intake by Young Children,” Appetite 7 (1986): 323–331; Birch, L. L., Johnson, S. L., Jones, M. B., and Peters, J. C., “Effects of a Nonenergy Fat Substitute on Children's Energy and Macronutrient Intake,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58 (1993): 326–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, S. L. and Birch, L. L., “Parents' and Children's Adiposity and Eating Style,” Pediatrics 94, no. 5 (1994): 653–661.Google Scholar
Birch, L. L. and Fisher, J. O., “Mothers' Child-feeding Practices Influence Daughters' Eating and Weight,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71 (2000): 1054–1061.Google Scholar
Wright, P., “Learning Experiences in Feeding Behaviour during Infancy,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 32, no. 6 (1988): 613–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, L. L., “Preschool Children's Preferences and Consumption Patterns,” Journal of Nutrition Education 11 (1979): 189–192; Bartoshuk, L. K. and Beauchamp, G. K., “Chemical Senses,” Annual Review of Psychology 45 (1994): 414–449; Birch, L. L., “Children's Preference for High-fat Foods,” Nutrition Reviews 50 (1992): 259–255; Birch, L. L., “Development of Food Preferences,” Annual Review of Nutrition 19 (1999): 41–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beauchamp, G. K., Cowart, B. J., Mennella, J. A., and Marsh, R. R., “Infant Salt Taste: Developmental, Methodological, and Contextual Factors,” Developmental Psychobiology 27, no. 6 (1994): 353–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowart, B. J., “Development of Taste Perception in Humans: Sensitivity and Preference throughout the Life Span,” Psychological Bulletin 90, no. 1 (1981): 43–73; Birch, L. L., McPhee, L., Shoba, B. C., Pirok, E., and Steinberg, L., “What Kind of Exposure Reduces Children's Food Neophobia?” Appetite 9 (1987): 171–178; see Sullivan, supra note 31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kern, D. L., McPhee, L., Fisher, J., Johnson, S., and Birch, L. L., “The Post-ingestive Consequences of Fat Condition Preferences for Flavors Associated with High Dietary Fat,” Physiology and Behavior 54, no. 1 (1993): 71–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, E. L. and Wardle, J., “Energy Density Predicts Preferences for Fruit and Vegetables in 4-Year-Old Children,” Appetite 41 (2003): 97–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, S. A. and Birch, L. L., “Pass the Sugar, Pass the Salt: Experience Dictates Preference,” Developmental Psychology 26 (1990): 546–551; Birch, L. L. and Marlin, D. W., “I Don't Like It; I Never Tired It: Effects of Exposure on Two-Year-Old Children's Food Preferences,” Appetite 3 (1982): 353–360; See Birch, supra note 46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carruth, B. R., Ziegler, P., Gordon, A., and Barr, S. I., “Prevalence of Picky Eaters among Infants and Toddlers and their Caregiver's Decisions about Offering a Food,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104 (2004): S57–S64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Gartner, supra note 18.Google Scholar
Kramer, M., Barr, R., Leduc, D., Boisjoly, C., McVey-White, L., and Pless, I., “Determinants of Weight and Adiposity in the First Year of Life,” Journal of Pediatrics 106 (1985): 10–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, J. L., Michaelsen, K. F., Rasmussen, K. M., and Sorensen, T. I., “Maternal Prepregnant Body Mass Index, Duration of Breastfeeding, and Timing of Complementary Food Introduction are Associated with Infant Weight Gain,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80, no. 6 (2004): 1579–1588.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carruth, B., Skinner, J., Houck, K., and Moran, J., “Addition of Supplementary Foods and Infant Growth (2 to 24 Months),” Journal of the American College Nutrition 19 (2000): 405–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reilly, J. J., Armstrong, J., Dorosty, A. R., Emmett, P. M., Ness, A., Rogers, I., Steer, C., and Sherriff, A., “Early Life Risk Factors for Obesity in Childhood: Cohort Study,” British Medical Journal 330, no. 7504 (2005): 1357.Google Scholar
Fox, M. K., Pac, S., Devaney, B., and Jankowski, L., “Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study: What Foods are Infants and Toddlers Eating?” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104, Supplement 1 (2004): S22–S30.Google Scholar
Devaney, B., Ziegler, P., Pac, S., Karwe, V., and Barr, S. I., “Nutrient Intakes of Infants and Toddlers,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104, no. 1, Supplement 1 (2004): S14–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Fox, supra note 32.Google Scholar
See Fox, supra note 56.Google Scholar
Skinner, J. D., Ziegler, P., and Ponza, M., “Transitions in Infants' and Toddlers' Beverage Patterns,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104, no. 1 (2004): s45–50.Google Scholar
Dennison, B. A., Rockwell, H. L., and Baker, S. L., “Excess Fruit Juice Consumption by Preschool-aged Children is Associated with Short Stature and Obesity,” Pediatrics 99 (1997): 15–22.Google Scholar
Skinner, J. D. and Carruth, B. R., “A Longitudinal Study of Children's Juice Intake and Growth: The Juice Controversy Revisited,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 101 (2001): 432–437; Alexy, U., Sichert-Hellert, W., Kersting, M., Manz, F., and Schoch, G., “Fruit Juice Consumption and Prevalence of Obesity and Short Stature in German Preschool Children: Results of the DONALD Study,” Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterol Nutrition 29 (1999): 343–349; Forshee, R. A. and Storey, M. L., “Total Beverage Consumption and Beverage Choices among Children and Adolescents,” International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 54, no. 4 (2003): 297–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, M. M. and Lifshitz, F., “Excess Fruit Juice Consumption as a Contributing Factor in Nonorganic Failure to Thrive,” Pediatrics 93, no. 3 (1194): 438–443.Google Scholar
Welsh, J. A., Cogswell, M. E., Rogers, S., Rockett, H., Mei, Z., and Grummer-Strawn, L. M., “Overweight among Low-income Pre-school Children Associated with the Consumption of Sweet Drinks: Missouri, 1999–2002,” Pediatrics 115, no. 2 (2005): e223–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ludwig, D. S., Peterson, K. E., and Gortmaker, S. L., “Relation between Consumption of Sugar-sweetened Drinks and Childhood Obesity: A Prospective, Observational Analysis,” Lancet 357, no. 9255 (2001): 505–508; Berkey, C. S., Rockett, H. R., Field, A. E., Gillman, M. W., and Colditz, G. A., “Sugar-Added Beverages and Adolescent Weight Change,” Obesity Research 12, no. 5 (2004): 778–788.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardy, R., Wadsworth, M., and Kuh, D., “The Influence of Childhood Weight and Socioeconomic Status on Change in Adult Body Mass Index in a British National Birth Cohort,” International Journal of Obesity 24 (2000): 725–734; Hendy, H. M., “Effectiveness of Trained Peer Models to Encourage Food Acceptance in Preschool Children,” Appetite 39, no. 3 (2002): 217–225; Lee, S. and Reicks, M., “Environmental and Behavioral Factors are Associated with the Calcium Intake of Low-income Adolescent Girls,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103, no. 11 (2003): 1526–1529; Young, E. M., Fors, S. W., and Hayes, D. M., “Associations between Perceived Parent Behaviors and Middle School Student Fruit and Vegetable Consumption,” Journal of Nutrition Education Behavior 36, no. 1 (2004): 2–8; Cullen, K. W., Baranowski, T., Rittenberry, L., Cosart, C., Hebert, D., and de Moor, C., “Child-reported Family and Peer Influences on Fruit, Juice and Vegetable Consumption: Reliability and Validity of Measures,” Health Education Research 16, no. 2 (2001): 187–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hearn, M., Baranowski, T., Baranowski, J., Doyle, C., Smith, M., Lin, L. S., and Resnicow, K., “Environmental Influences on Dietary Behavior among Children: Availability and Accessibility of Fruits and Vegetables Enable Consumption,” Journal of Health Education 29, no. 1 (1998): 26–32; Cullen, K. W., Baranowski, T., Owens, E., Marsh, T., Rittenberry, L., and de Moor, C., “Availability, Accessibility, and Preferences for Fruit, 100% Fruit Juice, and Vegetables Influence Children's Dietary Behavior,” Health Education and Behavior 30, no. 5 (2003): 615–626; Kratt, P., Reynolds, K., and Shewchuk, R., “The Role of Availability as a Moderator of Family Fruit and Vegetable Consumption,” Health Education and Behavior 27, no. 4 (2000): 471–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Cullen, supra note 67.Google Scholar
See Kratt, supra note 67.Google Scholar
Fisher, J. O., Mitchell, D.C., Smiciklas-Wright, H., Mannino, M. L., and Birch, L. L., “Meeting Calcium Recommendations during Middle Childhood Reflects Mother-Daughter Beverage Choices and Predicts Bone Mineral Status,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79, no. 4 (2004): 698–706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rolls, R. J., Engell, D., and Birch, L. L., “Serving Portion Size Influences 5-Year-Old but Not 3-Year-Old Children's Food Intakes,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 100, no. 2 (2000): 232–234; Fisher, J. O., Rolls, R. J., and Birch, L. L., “Children's Bite Size and Intake of an Entree are Greater with Large Portions than with Age-appropriate or Self-Selected Portions,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77, no. 5 (2003): 1164–1170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nisbett, R. E., “Determinants of Food Intake in Human Obesity,” Science 159 (1968): 1254–1255; Shaw, J., The Influence of Type of Food and Method of Presentation on Human Eating Behavior (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1973); Edelman, B., Engell, D., Bronstein, P., and Hirsch, E., “Environmental Effects on the Intake of Overweight and Normal-weight Men,” Appetite 7 (1986): 71–83; Engell, D., Kramer, M., Zaring, D., Birch, L. L., and Rolls, B., “Effects of Serving Size on Food Intake in Children and Adults,” Obesity Research 3, Supplement 3 (1995): 381S; Diliberti, N., Bordi, P. L., Conklin, M. T., Roe, L. S., and Rolls, B. J., “Increased Portion Size Leads to Increased Energy Intake in a Restaurant Meal,” Obesity Research 12 (2004): 562–568; Rolls, B. J., Roe, L. S., Kral, T. V., Meengs, J. S., and Wall, D.E., “Increasing the Portion Size of a Packaged Snack Increases Energy Intake in Men and Women,” Appetite 42 (2004): 63–69.Google Scholar
See Nielsen, supra note 12.Google Scholar
Huang, T. T-K, Howarth, N. C., Lin, B.-H., Roberts, S. B., and McCrory, M. A., “Energy Intake and Meal Portions: Associations with BMI Percentiles in U.S. Children,” Obesity Research 12, no. 11 (2004): 1875–1885; Smicikclas-Wright, H., Mitchell, D. C., Mickle, S. J., Goldman, J. D., Cook, A., “Foods Commonly Eaten in the United States, 1989–1991 and 1994–1996: Are Portion Sizes Changing?” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103 (2003): 41–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, L. L., “Effects of Peer Models' Food Choices and Eating Behaviors on Preschoolers' Food Preference,” Child Development 51 (1980): 489–496.Google Scholar
See Hendy, supra note 66.Google Scholar
See Lee, and Reicks, supra note 66.Google Scholar
See Young, supra note 66; Cullen, supra note 66.Google Scholar
LeVine, R. A., “Human Parental Care: Universal Goals, Cultural Strategies, Individual Behavior,” in Miller, P. M., ed., Parental Behavior in Diverse Societies. New Directions for Child Development, No. 40: The Jossey-Bass Social and Behavioral Sciences Series (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998): 3–12.Google Scholar
Birch, L. L. and Fisher, J. O., “Development of Eating Behaviors among Children and Adolescents,” Pediatrics 101, no. 3, part 2 (1998): 539–549.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Faith, M. S., Scanlon, K. S., Birch, L. L., Francis, L. A., and Sherry, B., “Parent-Child Feeding Strategies and their Relationships to Child Eating and Weight Status,” Obesity Research 12, no. 11 (2004): 1711–1722; see Johnson, supra note 41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, L. L., Zimmerman, S. I., and Hind, H., “The Influence of Social-affective Context on Preschool Children's Food Preferences,” Child Development 51 (1980): 856–861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, L. L., Birch, D., Marlin, D.W., and Kramer, L., “Effects of Instrumental Consumption on Children's Food Preference,” Appetite 3, no. 2 (1982): 125–134; Birch, L., Marlin, D., and Rotter, J., “Eating as the Means Activity in a Contingency: Effects on Young Children's Food Preference,” Child Development 55 (1984): 432–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., and Rodriguez, M. I., “Delay of Gratification in Children,” Science 244, no. 4907 (1989): 933–938.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, J. O. and Birch, L. L., “Restricting Access to a Palatable Food Affects Children's Behavioral Response, Food Selection and Intake,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69 (1999): 1264–1272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corwin, R. L., Wojnicki, F. H., Fisher, J. O., Dimitriou, S. G., Rice, H. B., and Young, M. A., “Limited Access to a Dietary Fat Option Affects Ingestive Behavior but Not Body Composition in Male Rats,” Physiology and Behavior 65, no. 3 (1998): 545–553.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, L. L., Fisher, J. O., and Davison, K. K., “Learning to Overeat: Maternal Use of Restrictive Feeding Practices Promotes Girls' Eating in the Absence of Hunger,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78, no. 2 (2003): 215–220; See Fisher, supra note 86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, J. O., Mitchell, D. C., Smiciklas-Wright, H., and Birch, L. L., “Parental Influences on Young Girls' Fruit and Vegetable, Micronutrient, and Fat Intakes,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102, no. 1 (2002): 58–64; Galloway, A. T., Fiorito, L., Lee, Y., and Birch, L. L., “Parental Pressure, Dietary Patterns, and Weight Status among Girls Who are ‘Picky Eaters,’” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105, no. 4 (2005): 541–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Y. and Birch, L. L., “Diet Quality, Nutrient Intake, Weight Status, and Feeding Environments of Girls Meeting or Exceeding the American Academy of Pediatrics Recommendations for Total Dietary Fat,” Pediatrics 54, no. 3 (2002): 179–186.Google Scholar
Birch, L., McPhee, L., Shoba, B. C., Steinberg, L., and Krehbiel, R., “‘Clean up Your Plate’: Effects of Child Feeding Practices on the Conditioning of Meal Size,” Learning and Motivation 18 (1987): 301–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birch, L. L., Fisher, J. O., Castro, C. N., Grimm-Thomas, K., Sawyer, R., Johnson, S. L., “Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Child Feeding Questionnaire: A Measure of Parental Attitudes, Beliefs and Practices about Child Feeding and Obesity Proneness,” Appetite 36, no. 3 (2001): 201–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, S. O., Power, T. G., Orlet Fisher, J., Mueller, S., and Nicklas, T. A., “Revisiting a Neglected Construct: Parenting Styles in a Child-feeding Context,” Appetite 44 (2005): 83–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cullen, K. W., Baranowski, T., Rittenberry, L., and Olvera, N., “Social-Environmental Influences on Children's Diets: Results from Focus Groups with African-, Euro- and Mexican-American Children and their Parents,” Health Education Research 15, no. 5 (2000): 581–590; Gable, S. and Lutz, S., “Household, Parent and Child Contributions to Childhood Obesity,” Family Relationships 49 (2000): 293–300; Patrick, H., Nicklas, T. A., Hughes, S. O., and Morales, M., “The Benefits of Authoritative Feeding Style: Caregiver Feeding Styles and Children's Food Consumption Patterns,” Appetite 44, no. 2 (2005): 243–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Patrick, supra note 94.Google Scholar
See Cullen, supra note 94; Gable, and Lutz, supra note 94.Google Scholar
Rhee, K. E., Lumeng, J. C., Appugliese, D. P., Kaciroti, N., and Bradley, R. H., “Parenting Styles and Overweight Status in First Grade,” Pediatrics 117, no. 6 (2006): 2047–2054.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lissau, I. and Sorensen, T. I., “Parental Neglect during Childhood and Increased Risk of Obesity in Young Adulthood,” Lancet 343 no. 8893 (1994): 324–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, supra note 93.Google Scholar
See LeVine, supra note 79.Google Scholar
Francis, L. A., and Birch, L. L., “Predictors of Maternal Child-Feeding Style: Maternal and Child Characteristics,” Appetite 37, no. 3 (2001): 231–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baughcum, A. E., Burklow, K. A., Deeks, C. M., Powers, S. W., and Whitaker, R. C., “Maternal Feeding Practices and Childhood Obesity: A Focus Group Study of Low-income Mothers,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 152, no. 10 (1998): 1010–1014; Bentley, M., Gavin, L., Black, M. M., and Teti, L., “Infant Feeding Practices of Low-income, African-American, Adolescent Mothers: An Ecological, Multigenerational Perspective,” Social Science and Medicine 49, no. 8 (1999): 1085–1100; Bronner, Y. L., Gross, S. M., Caulfield, L., Bentley, M. E., Kessler, L., Jensen, J., Weathers, B., and Paige, D. M., “Early Introduction of Solid Foods among Urban African-American Participants in WIC,” Journal of the American Dietic Association 99, no. 4 (1999): 457–461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maynard, L. M., Galuska, D. A., Blanck, H. M., and Serdula, M. K., “Maternal Perceptions of Weight Status of Children,” Pediatrics 111 (2003): 1226–1231.Google Scholar
Baughcum, A. E., Chamberlin, L. A., Deeks, C. M., Powers, S. W., and Whitaker, R. C., “Maternal Perceptions of Overweight Preschool Children,” Pediatrics 106, no. 6 (2000): 1380–1386; Anderson, C. B., Hughes, S. O., Fisher, J. O., and Nicklas, T. A., “Cross-Sectional Equivalence of Feeding Beliefs and Practices: The Psychometric Properties of the Child Feeding Questionnaire among Blacks and Hispanics,” Preventive Medicine 41, no. 2 (2005): 521–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Bentley, supra note 102.Google Scholar