Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 August 2019
Critiques of animal sacrifice in India have become increasingly strident over the past fifteen years. In the state of West Bengal, many of these critiques center on Kālīghāṭ, a landmark Hindu pilgrimage site in Kolkata where goats are sacrificed daily to the goddess Kālī. However, while similar critiques of this practice have resulted in many Indian states pushing to ban it—or enforce previous bans of it—no such legal action has been issued in West Bengal. Instead, in 2006, the Calcutta High Court ruled that this practice must be visually concealed at Kālīghāṭ. Drawing on modernist notions of cleanliness and public space, the bench argued that the blood and offal produced by this practice creates an inappropriate visual experience for visitors at a major pilgrimage and tourist site in this city. In the act of concealing sacrifice, the Calcutta High Court follows suit with courts across India in deeming the practice unmodern. Yet the Court's orders are defied daily by practitioners at Kālīghāṭ who seek physical and visual access to sacrificed animals and their blood. They believe Kālī desires that blood, and bestows her power and blessings through it. Fault lines in Hindu conceptions of power are dramatized here. The power of the courts is pitted against the power of the gods as Hindus debate the potency, necessity, and modernity of this practice.
1 Calcutta's name was changed to Kolkata in 2001 to reflect the indigenous rather than British pronunciation. Throughout the article, I use the new spelling when referring to the city after 2001. However, where institutions have retained the former spelling (the Calcutta High Court, for example), I have also.
2 Estimates vary widely. This figure is based on conversations I had with pāṇḍās (Brahmin pilgrim guides) and purohits (priests) at Kālīghāṭ, as well as my own observations over a year of fieldwork. Suchitra Samanta's estimates, based on conversations with the same groups of people, are higher: Samanta, Suchitra, “The ‘Self-Animal’ and Divine Digestion: Goat Sacrifice to the Goddess Kali in Bengal,” Journal of Asian Studies 53, no. 3 (1994): 779–803, at 782CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The number of goats sacrificed also depends on the day. Tuesdays and Saturdays are particularly auspicious to Kālī, so numbers are greater on those days.
3 Caṭṭopādhyāy, Sūrjyakumār, Kālīkṣetra Dīpikā [A commentary on the land of Kālī] (Bhavānīpur: Pārthiva Jantra, 1891), 80Google Scholar.
4 Prahlad Roy Goenka v. Union of India & Ors. (2006) Cal W.P. 24928 W (India).
5 I provide here a short description of the practice at Kālīghāṭ from my observations gathered periodically from 2002 until 2009, and then over a nine-month research period from 2011 until 2012.
6 An 1891 source indicates that there has not always been a wall surrounding the sacrificial enclosure. Due to a municipal order, which cited the durgandhamay (bad smell) and bhīṣaṇ dṛśya (horrible scene) of sacrificed goats and sheep, sacrifice was tirohit (made to disappear), presumably by a low wall prior to that year. See Caṭṭopādhyāy, Kālīkṣetra Dīpikā, 93. Ironically, as my experience at Kālīghāṭ prior to 2012 reveals, a low wall does not successfully conceal any of these things, except perhaps from children.
7 Samanta, “The ‘Self-Animal’ and Divine Digestion,” 789.
8 See Smith, Brian, “Eaters, Food, and Social Hierarchy in Ancient India: A Dietary Guide to a Revolution of Values,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 58, no. 2 (July, 1990): 177–205CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Doniger, Wendy, The Hindus: An Alternative History (New York: Penguin Press, 2009), 103–34Google Scholar.
9 See Heesterman, J. C., The Broken World of Ritual Sacrifice: An Essay in Ancient Indian Ritual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tull, Herman W., “The Killing That Is Not Killing: Men, Cattle, and the Origins of Non-Violence (Ahiṃsā) in the Vedic Sacrifice,” Indo-Iranian Journal 39, no. 3 (1996): 223–44Google Scholar.
10 In Ṛg Veda 1.162.21, a sacrificed horse is told, “You do not really die here, nor are you hurt.” Cited in Tull, “The Killing That Is Not Killing,” 225.
11 Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 3.8.1.15, cited in Tull, 226.
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15 Houben, 119–124. See Smith for a recent example of animal sacrifice in a Vedic Śrauta rite in Tamil Nadu: Smith, Frederick “A Brief History of Indian Religious Ritual and Resource Consumption: Was There an Environmental Ethic?,” Asian Ethnology 70, no. 2 (2011): 163–79, at 167Google Scholar.
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18 Padoux, “Tantrism,” 273. David Gordon White has argued that precolonial Tantra in fact represented the mainstream of South Asian religiosity rather than a fringe segment of it: White, David Gordon, Kiss of the Yogini: “Tantric Sex” in its South Asian Contexts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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24 Joel Bordeaux “Blood in the Mainstream: Kālī Pūjā and Tantric Orthodoxy in Early Modern Bengal” (presentation, Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Religion, San Diego, November 22, 2014).
25 McDermott, Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal, 208. The practice continues throughout rural Bengal today, though not in major urban areas, except at Kālīghāṭ.
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28 See Ullucci, Daniel C., The Christian Rejection of Animal Sacrifice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 8–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar. It is also worth noting that Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist Jewish movements also advocate leaving animal sacrifice in the past: Klawans, Jonathan, “Sacrifice in Ancient Israel: Pure Bodies, Domesticated Animals, and the Divine Shepard,” in A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science and Ethics, ed. Waldau, Paul and Patton, Kimberley (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 65–80, at 66Google Scholar.
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36 The Indo-Asian News Service reported on November 30, 2007, that the People for Animal Rights persuaded Dakṣiṇeśvar, a Kālī temple in northern Kolkata made famous by its former priest, Ramakrishna, to cease the practice through their protests in 2000. See Indo-Asian News Services, “India: Ex-Royals Stop Animal Sacrifice after Campaign,” Religioscope, November 30, 2007, http://religion.info/english/articles/article_351.shtml#.V7dgMJMrK4g. The same article reported that the former royal family of Nabadwip also ceased sacrifice for religious festivals. At another major Kālī temple in the city, Karunamoyee, sacrifice was stopped in 2003. A priest of that temple relayed to me that in that year, three separate sacrifices were botched, indicating the goddess's displeasure with the practice. On one occasion, the knife bent, and on another two occasions, it took more than one stroke of the knife to perform the sacrifice. (Unless otherwise attributed, all interviews were conducted in confidentiality, and the names of the interviewees are withheld by mutual consent.)
37 An Address to Sri-Kanchi-Kama-Kotipithadhisha-Srijagatguru-Sri 1008 Sankaracharrya Srimachchandrashekharendra-Sarasvati (Calcutta: Shevait Community of Kalighat, 1935) (This pamphlet was given to me by Dilip Haldar in 2009); Sastri, S. Sambamurthy, Paramacharya: Life of Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi of Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam, trans. Sundarajan, P. G. (Madras: Jana Kalyan, 1991), 106Google Scholar.
38 Shanti Bhattacharya, head priest of Kālīghāṭ, interview with the author, June 22, 2009, Kolkata.
39 See Mukherjea, B. K., The Hindu Law of Religious and Charitable Trusts: Tagore Law Lectures, 5th ed., ed.Sen, A. C. (1983 repr., Calcutta: Eastern Law House, 2010)Google Scholar; Derrett, J. Duncan M., Religion, Law and the State in India (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.
40 “Activists Call for Ban on Animal Slaughter for Religious Sacrifice,” Agence France-Presse, November 14, 2001.
41 Some claim that this was the wish of Kālī herself. See, for example, Upendranāth Mukhopādhyāy, Kālīghāṭ Itivṛtta [The history of Kālīghāṭ] (Bhāvanīpur: Hitaiṣī Jantra, 1925), 59.
42 To see the Vaiṣṇava accommodations that have been made at Kālīghāṭ since that time, see Sanjukta Gupta, “The Domestication of a Goddess: Caraṇa-Tīrtha Kālīghāṭ, the Mahāpīṭha of Kālī,” in McDermott and Kripal, Encountering Kālī, 60–79.
43 On the annual festival of Kālī Pūjā, Kālī is worshipped as a form of the goddess Lakṣmī, the consort of Viṣṇu. At that time, goats are sacrificed not in direct line with Kālī’s inner sanctum, but off to the side. Devotees offer hundreds of goats on that night.
44 Interview with the author, October 15, 2011.
45 Interview with the author, September 26, 2011.
46 State of West Bengal v. Ashutosh Lahiri (1995) AIR 464, 1995 SCC (1) 189 (India); Abhijit Das & Ors. v. State of West Bengal and Ors. W.P. No. 1378 of 2010 with Enamul Haque & Anr. v. State of West Bengal & Ors., (2010) W.P. No. 21591(W) (India). For an analysis of similar rulings elsewhere, see Derrett, J. Duncan M., “India,” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 8, no. 1 (1959): 221–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
47 While most Hindus do not consume beef because many believe cow slaughter to be prohibited according to their religion, Muslims regularly do so. On beef bans, see Jaffrelot, Christophe, “India's Democracy at 70: Toward a Hindu State?” Journal of Democracy 28, no. 3 (2017): 52–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sarkar, Radha and Sarkar, Amar, “Sacred Slaughter: An Analysis of Historical, Communal, and Constitutional Aspects of Beef Bans in India,” Politics, Religion and Ideology 17, no. 4 (2016): 329–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
48 Ravik Bhattacharya, “Kolkata to Organise Beef Festival to Protest against Ban,” Hindustan Times, March 27, 2015, http://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/kolkata-to-organise-beef-festival-to-protest-against-ban/story-wDJVMh4mxrETrYTSTUTmDK.html. Notable officials who supported the festival included the former Lok Sabha speaker Somnath Chatterjee, former mayor Bikash Ranjan Bhattacharya, Congress leader Abdul Mannam, and former Communist Party of India (Marxist) councilor of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation, Faiyaz Ahmed Khan. Nongovernmental organizations, including the Subhas Chakraborty Foundation and Paschim Banga Pratibondhi Sammelani, were slated to organize the event. It was canceled by the venue at the last minute, citing concerns that the event had become politicized. Organizers suspected a Trinamool conspiracy. Ravik Bhattacharya, “Kolkata: Meat Festival Called off as Politics Plays Spoiler,” Hindustan Times, March 31, 2015, http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/kolkata-meat-festival-called-off-as-politics-plays-spoiler/story-UpbHdY6x6hr4CF6naVsiFL.html. The beef festival would indeed endear many Bengalis to the left-wing Communist Party of India (Marxist)—a party that had been in power in the state for thirty years running until Trinamool ousted them in 2001 under West Bengal's current chief minister, Mamata Banerjee (who, notably, resides in the Kālīghāṭ neighborhood).
49 “Kolkata High Court Bans Open Cow Slaughter on Bakrid,” IBTL, November 6, 2011, http://www.ibtl.in/news/states/1551/kolkata-high-court-bans-open-cow-slaughter-on-bakrid/.
50 “Won't Let BJP Play Hindutva Card: Mamata Banerjee,” Indian Express, April 14, 2016, http://indianexpress.com/article/elections-2016/india/india-news-india/bjp-playing-hindutva-card-vitiating-environment-in-west-bengal-mamata-banerjee/.
51 Subhro Saha, “Crusade against Animal Sacrifice at Kalighat,” Telegraph India, October 24, 2000.
52 Sujoy Dhar, “India: New Year Brings Cheer to Animal Rights Groups,” Inter Press Service, January 2, 2001.
53 Saha, “Crusade.”
54 “Activists Call for Ban.”
55 Samanta, “The ‘Self-Animal’ and Divine Digestion,” 783.
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59 This is the same logic as that employed by the City Council in Hialeah, Florida, in the famous American case dealing with practitioners of Santería: Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. Hialeah, 508 U.S. 520 (1993). See Wise, Steven, “Animal Law and Animal Sacrifice: Analysis of the U.S. Supreme Court Ruling on Santería Animal Sacrifice in Hialeah,” in A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science and Ethics, ed. Waldau, Paul and Patton, Kimberley (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 585–87Google Scholar. The Hialeah City Council banned the practice because they deemed the killing of any animal without the explicit intention of consuming it as unnecessarily cruel, even if the animal were consumed after being ritually killed. They were not seeking to do away with animal consumption but to decouple that practice from that of religious worship. Thus, as Jonathan Klawans argues, “The elimination of sacrifice is not an ethical development, but an aesthetic one,” and as such, animals are not necessarily better off. Klawans, “Sacrifice in Ancient Israel,” 65. The Hialeah City Council's ban was later overturned by the Supreme Court on the grounds that the order unfairly singled out the Santería community on the basis of their religion. In the United States, as in India, the Constitution does not guarantee the right of religious communities to practice animal sacrifice under all circumstances.
60 Prahlad Roy Goenka, interview with the author, November 23, 2011, Kolkata.
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72 “Court Ruling on Animal Sacrifice Bolsters Activists,” Hindustan Times, September 21, 2006, http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/court-ruling-on-animal-sacrifice-bolsters-activists/story-aOWUX1ajguzQVirmEJba0O.html.
73 “Court Ruling on Animal Sacrifice Bolsters Activists.”
74 Prahlad Roy Goenka v. Union of India & Ors. (2006) Cal W.P. 24928 W (India). In the same judgment, the Court ordered the Temple Committee to allow the building of a tourist facility that was proposed and funded by a nongovernmental organization in conjunction with the West Bengal Tourism Development Corporation. International Foundation for Sustainable Development, “Kalighat Redevelopment Project,” International Foundation for Sustainable Development, accessed August 15, 2013, http://ifsdindia.com/enterprise.html.
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76 See “Attractions,” Lonely Planet, accessed November 7, 2018, http://www.lonelyplanet.com/india/kolkata-calcutta/sights, and “Kolkata Tour,” Incredible India, accessed July 18, 2019, http://www.incredibleindia-tourism.org/pilgrimage-tours/kolkata.html
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