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County of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties Union: Embracing the Endorsement Test

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 April 2015

Steven A. Seidman
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In County Of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties Union, the United States Supreme Court held that the establishment clause of the first amendment of the Constitution did not permit Allegheny County, Pennsylvania to allow a local Catholic group to display a nativity scene inside the county courthouse. At the same time, however, the Court permitted a city display of a Chanukah menorah next to a Christmas tree on the steps of the Pittsburgh City Hall. The Court divided 5-to-4 in invalidating the creche and 6-to-3 in upholding the menorah, with no single opinion commanding a majority of the Court on the question of the Chanukah symbol. More importantly, the majority opinion officially adopted the Endorsement test, a new analytical tool which uses a case-by-case balancing approach in which constitutional judgments concerning religious symbols are dependent upon the physical setting of the particular practice.

The Endorsement test originates from a 1984 case, Lynch v. Donnelly, in which the Court upheld a city-sponsored nativity scene that was surrounded by Santa's reindeer, a wishing well and candy canes. Justice O'Connor's concurring opinion stressed that the result in each case should turn on the “unique circumstances” and “particular physical setting” involved. Her opinion specifically focused on whether the practice at issue would be perceived as a government endorsement of a religious belief. By incorporating the use of “perspectives” during the decision-making process, the Endorsement test reflects the contribution of neutrality as a theoretical standard which recognizes that individuals perceive the world differently, and that one individual's neutrality may be another's bias.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Law and Religion , Volume 9 , Issue 1 , 1991 , pp. 211 - 241
Copyright
Copyright © Center for the Study of Law and Religion at Emory University 1991

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References

1. 109 S. Ct. 3086 (1989).

2. “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion. …” U.S. Const. amend. I.

3. 465 U.S. 668 (1984). See infra notes 69-87 and accompanying text.

4. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 692 (O'Connor, J., concurring).

5. Id.

6. Id. at 688 (O'Connor, J., concurring).

7. See Marshall, , “We Know It When We See It”: The Supreme Court And Establishment, 59 S. Cal. L. Rev. 495 (1986)Google Scholar. See infra notes 35-36 and accompanying text.

8. See infra notes 198-201 and accompanying text.

9. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3099-3101.

10. Id. at 3103.

11. Id. at 3105.

12. Id. at 3100-3101.

13. 403 U.S. 602, 612-13 (1971).

14. See infra notes 57-65 and accompanying text.

15. See infra notes 21-25 and accompanying text.

16. See infra notes 26-30 and accompanying text.

17. See infra notes 21-25 and accompanying text.

18. See infra notes 26-30 and accompanying text.

19. See infra notes 31-41 and accompanying text.

20. Commentators have recognized the general acceptance of the theory of neutrality and promoted its use in establishment clause adjudication. See Beschle, , The Conservative As Liberal: The Religion Clauses, Liberal Neutrality And The Approach Of Justice O'Connor, 62 Notre Dame L. Rev. 151 (1987)Google Scholar (establishment clause analysis requires an attitude of liberal neutrality); Braveman, , The Establishment Clause And The Course Of Religious Neutrality, 46 Md. L. Rev. 352 (1986)Google Scholar (Professor Braveman discusses the continuing vitality of the neutrality principle); Cornelius, , Church And State — The Mandate Of The Establishment Clause: Wall of Separation Or Benign Neutrality?, 16 St. Mary's L.J. 1, 35–39 (1984)Google Scholar (the proper focus in establishment clause adjudication is the concept of benign neutrality); Hurt, , The Use of Endorsement In Establishment Clause Analysis — The Key To A New Consensus, 8 Miss. C.L. Rev. 1, 25 (1987)Google Scholar (neutrality is central to the establishment clause); Loewy, , Rethinking Government Neutrality Towards Religion Under The Establishment Clause: The Untapped Potential Of Justice O'Connor's Insight, 64 N.C.L. Rev. 1049 (1986)Google Scholar (the government has an obligation of neutrality); McConnell, , Neutrality Under The Religion Clauses. 81 Nw. U.L. Rev. 146 (1986)Google Scholar (neutrahty is a starting point of and major element in establishment clause analysis); Stone, , The Equal Access Controversy: The Religion Clauses And The Meaning Of “Neutrality”, 81 Nw. U.L. Rev. 168 (1986)Google Scholar (the Constitution does not dictate specific results since neutrahty is not a self defining concept); Tribe, , Constitutional Calculus: Equal Justice Or Economic Efficiency?, 98 Harv. L. Rev. 592, 611 (1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (the government has a first amendment duty of religious neutrahty); Valauri, , The Concept Of Neutrality In Establishment Clause Doctrine, 48 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 83 (1986)Google Scholar (Professor Valauri analyzes the theory of neutrality and attempts to overcome confusion from its application). But see Smith, , Symbols, Perceptions and Doctrinal Illusions: Establishment Neutrality And The “No Endorsement” Test, 86 Mich. L. Rev. 266 (neutrality is empty as an establishment ideal)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21. The metaphor originates from a letter Thomas Jefferson wrote to the Danbury Baptist Association in 1802. See Koch, A., The Life and Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson 332–33 (1944)Google Scholar.

22. 330 U.S. 1 (1947).

23. Id. at 15.

24. 333 U.S. 203 (1948).

25. Abington Township School Dist. v. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203, 226 (1963) (quoting West Virginia Bd. Of Educ. v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 638 (1943)).

26. Board of Educ. v. Allen, 392 U.S. 236, 249 (1967).

27. 426 U.S. 736, 745 (1976) (Blackmun, J., plurality).

28. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3135.

29. Id.

30. 343 U.S. 306, 314 (1952).

31. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3128.

32. Id.

33. Id. at 3135. Compare Everson, 330 U.S. at 18 (majority opinion) (since the government transported public school students, the concept of neutrality suggests that parochial school students receive similar transportation) with 330 U.S. at 58-60 (Rutledge, J., dissenting) (the concept of neutrality has been adhered to since all students may attend public school).

34. See Aguilar v. Felton, 473 U.S. 402, 414 (1985); Marsh v. Chambers, 103 S. Ct. 3330, 3351 (1983) (Brennan, J., dissenting); Roemer, 426 U.S. at 745-46; Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 92 (1976); Committee for Pub. Educ. & Religious Liberty v. Nyquist, 413 U.S. 756, 771 n.28, 788 (1973); Gillette v. United States, 401 U.S. 437, 449 (1971); Welsh v. United States, 398 U.S. 333, 372 (1970) (White, J., dissenting); Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97, 103-04 (1968); Schempp, 374 U.S. at 226; Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421, 443 (1962) (Douglas, J., concurring); McGowan v. Maryland, 366 U.S. 420, 564 (1961) (Douglas, J., dissenting); Zorach, 343 U.S. at 314; Everson, 330 U.S. at 18. (This list was partially accumulated in Note, The Myth of Religious Neutrality By Separation In Education, 71 Va. L. Rev. 127, n.7 (1985))CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35. See Marshall, supra note 7.

36. Valauri, supra note 20, at 92 (Professor Valauri argues that no one clear principle can be applied in establishment clause cases since the concept of neutrality is complex and ambiguous).

37. See Smith, supra note 20, at 325 n.228 (summarizing Johnson, , Concepts and Compromise in First Amendment Religious Doctrine, 72 Calif. L. Rev. 817, 839–841 (1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (all perspectives should be taken into account and applied in a spirit of fairness and compromise so that government acts neutrally)). But see Minow, , The Supreme Court — Foreword: Justice Engendered, 101 Harv. L. Rev. 10, 25 (1986)Google Scholar (Professor Minow denies the possibility of a government's actions being neutral since the world is not itself neutral).

38. Smith, supra note 20, at 326-7.

39. Beschle, supra note 20, at 174 (“A judge or an umpire is neutral as between the participants, but he does not separate himself from them.”); See also Mills Acquisition Co. v. MacMillan, Inc., Fed. Sec. L. Rep. (CCH) ¶ 94071 (1988 Del. Ch.) (although an auction of a company aided one bidder over another, the principle goal of neutrality was achieved since the rules gained the highest available price).

40. 438 U.S. 265 (1978).

41. See also Dworkin, R., Bakke's Case: Are Quotas Unfair? in A Matter of Principle 293–303 (1985)Google Scholar (Dworkin defends affirmative action in admissions to higher education, arguing that aid to a particular group need not carry with it the message that the recipient group is favored); Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448 (1980) (race may sometimes validly be a factor in government decision-making where the purpose is to redress existing inequalities); Califano v. Webster, 430 U.S. 313 (1977) (sex may sometimes be a valid classification if necessary to serve important government objectives).

42. See infra notes 57-65 and accompanying text. A number of commentators have criticized the imprecision of the Lemon test. See Beschle, supra note 20, at 163-66; Cornelius, supra note 20, at 3-4, 15-19; Feder, , And A Child Shall Lead Them: Justice O'Connor, The Principle Of Religious Liberty And Its Practical Application, 8 Pace L. Rev. 249Google Scholar; Howard, A.E.D., Baker, J.W., Derr, T.S., Church, State, and Politics 21 (1981)Google Scholar; Hurt, supra note 20; Smith, supra note 20, at 315; Valauri, supra note 20, at 86; See also Loewy, supra note 20.

43. Committee for Pub. Educ. v. Regan, 444 U.S. 646, 662 (1980).

44. Walz v. Tax Comm'n, 397 U.S. 664, 668 (1970) (Chief Justice Burger desired “play in the joints productive of a benevolent neutrality which will permit religious exercise to exist without sponsorship and without interference.”).

45. Howard, A.E.D., Church, State, and Politics 33–34 (1981)Google Scholar.

46. 374 U.S. 203 (1963).

47. 397 U.S. 664 (1970).

48. Lemon, 403 U.S. at 612-13 (quoting Walz, 397 U.S. at 674).

49. Id. at 615-20.

50. Id. at 614.

51. Id. at 613-14.

52. 374 U.S. 203 (1963).

53. Schempp, 374 U.S. at 222.

54. 392 U.S. 236 (1968).

55. 397 U.S. 664 (1970).

56. Walz, 397 U.S. at 674.

57. 433 U.S. 229 (1977).

58. 421 U.S. 349 (1975).

59. McCollum v. Board of Educ, 333 U.S. 203 (1948).

60. Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306 313-14 (1952) (this type of program “respects the religious nature of our people and accommodates the public service to their spiritual needs.”)

61. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203 (1963).

62. Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962).

63. Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38 (1985).

64. Stone v. Graham, 449 U.S. 39 (1980).

65. Lynch v. Donnelly, 465 U.S. 668 (1984). See also Marsh v. Chambers, 463 U.S. 783 (1983) (while ignoring the Lemon test, the Court upheld prayers opening legislative sessions led by a state-paid chaplain. The Court emphasized the historical acceptance of the challenged practice.)

66. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 688 (O'Connor, J., concurring).

67. Edwards v. Aguillard, 107 S. Ct. 2573, 2578-79 (1987); Witters v. Washington Dep't of Services for the Blind, 474 U.S. 481, 488-89 (1986); Grand Rapids School Dist. v. Ball, 473 U.S. 373, 389 (1985); Wallace, 472 U.S. 38, 56 & n.42 (1985).

68. See infra notes 198-201 and accompanying text.

69. A number of commentators have expressed dissatisfaction with the Lynch decision. See Beschle, supra note 20; Braveman, supra note 20; Dorsen, , The Nativity Scene Case: An Error Of Judgment, 4 U. Ill. L. Rev. 837 (1985)Google Scholar; Loewy, supra note 20, at 1063-65; Tribe, supra note 20, at 610-11.

70. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 679-80.

71. Id. at 681.

72. Id. at 684 (quoting Lemon, 403 U.S. at 619-22).

73. Id. at 682.

74. Id. at 687.

75. Brief of the National Jewish Committee and the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America as Amici Curiae in Support of Respondents at 3.

76. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 683.

77. Id. at 687 (O'Connor, J., concurring).

78. Id. at 688.

79. Id. at 692.

80. Id. at 694.

81. Id. at 690.

82. See supra notes 31-41 and accompanying text.

83. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 690 (O'Connor, J., concurring).

84. Id. at 692.

85. See infra notes 146-66 and accompanying text.

86. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 693 (O'Connor, J. concurring) (emphasis added).

87. Id. at 692.

88. See Beschle, supra note 20; Feder, supra note 42; Hurt, supra note 20; Loewy, supra note 20. See also Braveman, supra note 20, at 384-85. But see Smith, supra note 20 (the Endorsement test is doctrinally flawed and defective).

89. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3093-94.

90. Id.

91. Id. at 3094-95.

92. 842 F.2d 655, 663 (3rd Cir. 1988).

93. Id. at 662.

94. Id.

95. Id.

96. Id. at 663.

97. See supra notes 77-87 and accompanying text.

98. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3100.

99. Id. at 3101 (quoting Wallace, 472 U.S. at 70 (O'Connor, J., concurring in judgment) and quoting Lynch, 465 U.S. at 687 (O'Connor, J., concurring) (emphasis added in Allegheny)).

100. Id. at 3103. See supra notes 69-76 and accompanying text.

101. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3104.

102. Id.

103. Id.

104. Id. at 3143 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part).

105. Id. at 3137 (Kennedy, J. concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part.)

106. Id. (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part) (citing Friedman v. Bd. of County Comm'rs of Bernalillo County, 781 F.2d 777 (10th Cir. 1985) (Latin cross on official county seal)).

107. Id. at 3124 (Brennan J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).

108. Id. at 3128 (Brennan, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).

109. Id. at 3135 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part.) See infra notes and accompanying text.

110. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3135 (Kennedy, J. concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part).

111. See supra notes 26-30 and accompanying text.

112. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3138 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part.)

113. See supra notes 77-87 and accompanying text.

114. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 688 (O'Connor, J., concurring).

115. Id.

116. Mann, , Religious Symbols In Public Places, The Congress Monthly, 04 1985, at 3Google Scholar.

117. Id. at 4.

118. Dorsen, supra note 69, at 859.

119. Smith, supra note 20, at 290.

120. Mann, supra note 116, at 4-6 (emphasis in original).

121. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 690 (O'Connor, J. concurring).

122. Tribe, L., American Constitutional Law 1288 (2d ed. 1988)Google Scholar.

123. 781 F. 2d 777, 782 (10th Cir. 1985). See supra note 106 and accompanying text.

124. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 676-77, 683 (Brennan J. dissenting). See supra note 84 and accompanying text.

125. Schempp, 374 U.S. at 303 (Brennan, J. concurring).

126. See Lynch, 465 U.S. at 716 (Brennan, J., dissenting). Justice Brennan has suggested that history has removed the religious elements from various practices. See infra note 157 and accompanying text.

127. See McCreary v. Stone, 739 F. 2d 716 (2d Cir. 1984) (a disclaimer can rectify a situation where viewers might mistakenly attribute the private action to the state).

128. Beschle, supra note 20, at 187. But see Smith, supra note 20, at 270 (quoting Katz, W., Religion and American Constitutions 23–24Google Scholar) (Professor Katz claims that if neutrality is a “bit more neutral toward some than toward others, a sense of humor should enable all of us to accept the situation.”)

129. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). See Loewy, supra note 20, at 1051 (the intoleration of segregated railroad cars and courtroom seating occurs “because of the discomfort of the [accompanying] message [of inferiority], not the seats.”)

130. Geduldig v. Aiello, 417 U.S. 484 (1974).

131. Plessy, 163 U.S. at 551. See also Pfeffer, L., Religion State and the Burger Court 124 (1984)Google Scholar (the decisions in Plessy and Lynch are quite comparable since both were “predicated upon the same basic concept: the inherent inferiority of ethnic groups, either because of color of skin or religious commitment.”)

132. Tribe, supra note 20, at 611.

133. Mann, supra note 116, at 6.

134. See. e.g., Reitman v. Mulkey, 387 U.S. 369 (1967).

135. See, e.g., Stanton v. Stanton, 421 U.S. 7 (1975); Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971).

136. Lupu, , Keeping the Faith: Religion, Equality and Speech In the U.S Constitution, 18 Conn. L. Rev. 739, 745–46 (1986)Google Scholar.

137. Tribe, supra note 20, at 611 (emphasis in original).

138. Jaffree, 472 U.S. at 76 (O'Connor, J. concurring).

139. 374 U.S. 398 (1963).

140. Marshall, supra note 7, at 537.

141. See Witters v. Washington Dept. of Services for the Blind, 474 U.S. 481, 493 (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in judgment).

142. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3104.

143. Id.

144. L. Tribe, supra note 122, at 1296.

145. Dorsen, supra note 69, at 860.

146. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3141 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part).

147. Id. at 3142 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part).

148. 463 U.S. 783 (1983).

149. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3142 (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).

150. Id.

151. Id. at 3143.

152. Id.

153. Id. at 3121 (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment).

154. Id. at 3106.

155. Id. at 3106 & n.46 (quoting Lynch, 465 U.S. at 693 (O'Connor, J., concurring)).

156. Id. at 3106.

157. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 716 (Brennan J., dissenting).

158. L. Tribe, supra note 122, at 1224. See Dorsen, supra note 69, at 847 (“the issue is how the Court should rely on history.”).

159. Loewy, supra note 20, at 1053 n.35 (Compare Justice Rehnquist's sources in Jaffree, 472 U.S. at 91 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting) to reject the “wall” metaphor with the equally authoritative sources used by Justice Rutledge to reach the contrary conclusion in Everson, 330 U.S. at 28 (Rutledge, J., dissenting)).

160. 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

161. Dorsen, supra note 69, at 849.

162. Choper, , The Religion Clauses of the First Amendment: Reconciling The Conflict, 41 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 673, 676–77 (1980)Google Scholar.

163. Beschle, supra note 20, at 164 & n.80.

164. Schempp, 374 U.S. at 237 (Brennan, J., concurring) (Justice Brennan also noted Chief Justice Marshall's wise aphorism that “it is a Constitution we are expounding”). Id. at 230.

165. Minow, supra note 37, at 839.

166. Committee for Pub. Educ. v. Nyquist, 413 U.S. 756, 820 (1973) (White, J., dissenting).

167. Johnson, supra note 37, at 839.

168. L. Tribe, supra note 122, at 1293. See also Marshall, supra note 7, at 533-34 (for an observer, “how endorsement is perceived depends largely upon one's initial outlook.”).

169. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 685.

170. N. Redlich, “Nativity Ruling Insults Jews,” N.Y. Times, March 26, 1984. L. Tribe, supra note 122, at n.66.

171. Lynch, 465 U.S. at 703 (Brennan, J., dissenting).

172. Id.

173. Tribe, supra note 20, at 611 (emphasis in original).

174. See, e.g., United States v. Carotene Products, 304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938).

175. Dorsen, supra note 69, at 861 (emphasis in original).

176. Id. at 863-64. Professor Dorsen cites Palmore v. Sidoti, 104 S. Ct. 1879, 1882 (1984) (where racial prejudice is concerned, “[t]he Constitution cannot control such prejudices but neither can it tolerate them.”).

177. 367 U.S. 488 (1961).

178. 319 U.S. 624 (1943).

179. Smith, supra note 20, at 291 & n. 103.

180. 647 F. Supp. 1194, 1199 (E.D. Tenn. 1986).

181. Minow, supra note 37, at 48.

182. Id. at 32. See also id. at 46 & n. 172 (citing James, W., “On a Certain Blindness In Human Beings” in On Some of Life's Ideals 3 (1912))Google Scholar (“What interests us, given who we are and where we stand, affects our ability to perceive.”). See also Cardozo, B., The Nature of the Judicial Process 167 (1921)Google Scholar (when Justices enter the world of the subjective their evaluation is subject to other forces: “Deep below consciousness are other forces, the likes and the dislikes, the predilections and the prejudices, the complex of instincts and emotions and habits and convictions, which make the man. …”).

183. Minow, supra note 37, at 15.

184. See Lynch, 465 U.S. at 694 (“[A]lthough evidentiary submissions may help answer [whether the objective observer will perceive endorsement of religion], the question is, like the questions whether racial or sex-based classifications communicate an invidious message, in large part a legal question to be answered on the basis of judicial interpretation of social facts.”). Justice O'Connor distinguishes her Endorsement test from the “reasonable person” standard in tort law where factual questions are answered by the jury.

185. Minow, supra note 37, at 60.

186. Id. at 32.

187. Id. at 70.

188. 417 U.S. 484 (1974).

189. Minow, supra note 37, at 81.

190. 163 U.S. 537 (1896) (Harlan, J., dissenting).

191. Id. at 552.

192. Minow, supra note 37, at n.277 (citing Matsuda, , Liberal Jurisprudence and Abstracted Visions of Human Nature: A Feminist Critique of Rawls' Theory of Justice, 16 N.M.L. Rev. 613, 630 (1986))Google Scholar.

193. Minow, supra note 37, at n.185.

194. L. Tribe, supra note 122, at n.185.

195. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3144 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part).

196. Id. at 3144-45 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part).

197. Id. at 3145 (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part) (quoting American Jewish Congress v. Chicago, 827 F.2d 120, 130 (7th Cir. 1987) (Easterbrook, J., dissenting)).

198. Id. at 3120 (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment).

199. 791 F.2d 1561 (6th Cir. 1986), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 939 (1986).

200. 827 F.2d 120 (7th Cir. 1987).

201. Allegheny, 842 F. 2d at 655. See supra notes 92-96 and accompanying text.

202. 895 F.2d 953 (4th Cir. 1990).

203. 891 F.2d 1024 (2nd Cir. 1989).

204. Id. at 1028.

205. 726 F. Supp. 184 (S. D. Ohio 1989).

206. Id. at 191.

207. Allegheny, 109 S. Ct. at 3120 (O'Connor, J. concurring in part and concurring in the judgment).

208. See Mann, supra note 116, and Redlich, supra note 170.

209. See L. Tribe, supra note 122, at 1187. See also Minow, supra note 37, at 93 (a continuing skepticism about the reality endorsed by the Court is the only guard against tyranny); Tribe, L., Constitutional Choices 7 (1985)Google Scholar (“In matters of power, the end of doubt and distrust is the beginning of tyranny.”)

210. L. Tribe, supra note 122, at 1296. Professor Tribe quotes Justice Brennan in Schempp, 374 U.S. at 241 (Brennan, J., concurring) who wrote, “practices which may have been objectionable to no one in the time of Jefferson and Madison may today be highly offensive to many persons, the deeply devout and the non-believers alike.”